1Chapter 1_intro胡壮麟语言学教程第一章.ppt

Chapter One Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Some myths about languagen nLanguage is only a means of communication.n nLanguage has a form-meaning correspondence.n nThe function of language is to exchange information.n nEnglish is more difficult to learn than Chinese.n nBlack English is not standard and should be reformed.21.2 Some fundamental views about Ln nChildren learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.n nLanguage operates by rules.n nAll languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.n nEveryone speaks a dialect.n nLanguage slowly changes.3n nSpeakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.n nLanguages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.n nWriting is derivative of speech.42. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)5“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)6“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)7“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)8Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)9“The question ‘What is language?’ is comparable with -- and, some would say, hardly less profound than -- ‘What is life?’, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological sciences... it is not so much the question itself as the particular interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologist's day-to-day speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to the question ‘What is language?’”￿ ￿--John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Linguistics (1981) 10“... in a sense all definitions [of language] are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose ... some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.”--R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989)11“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)12“Language is a means of verbal communication.”n nIt is instrumental in that communicating It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. n nIt is social and conventional in that It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006)133. Design Features of Languagen nLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. 14Human language is ‘unique’n nArbitrariness n nDuality n nCreativity n nDisplacement 153.1 Arbitrarines n nSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning n nArbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:n nThe dog barks The dog barks wow wow wowwow in English but “ in English but “汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪” in Chinese.” in Chinese. 16n nArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. n nHe came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.n nHe sat down and came in.He sat down and came in.n nHe sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.n nThe link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.173.2 Duality n nThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:n nPrimary units ‘words’ (meaningful) consist of Primary units ‘words’ (meaningful) consist of secondary units ‘sounds’ (meaningless).secondary units ‘sounds’ (meaningless).18n nHierarchy of language: stratification as ‘the infinite use of finite means’.n nSounds > syllables > morphemes > words Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discoursessentences/utterances > texts/discourses193.3 Creativity n nLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. n nWords can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. 20n nBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. n nBecause of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. 21n nThe recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance:n nHe bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was written by a was written by a teacher teacher whowho taught in a school taught in a school whichwhich was was known for its graduates known for its graduates whowho ... ...223.4 Displacement n nHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. n nThus, we can refer to Confucius, or the Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us. second is situated far away from us. 23n nAnimal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. n nHuman language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. 24n nThe honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it. n nA dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days. n nOur language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.25n nDisplacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. 265. Functions of language n nLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. n nThey summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.27n nFor Jakobson, language is above all for communication. n nWhile for many people, the While for many people, the purpose of communication is purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of even the primary goal of communication. communication. 28n nIn his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:n nspeaker, addressee, context, message, code, speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.contact.n nIn conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: 29n nreferential (to convey message and information),n npoetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),n nemotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),n nconative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), n nphatic (to establish communion with others)n nmetalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).30n nThey correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code respectively. n nJakobson's views of the functions of language are still of great importance.31ContextREFERENTIALAddresserEMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives and vocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)32n nHalliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. n nIdeational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.33n nIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development: n nInstrumentalInstrumentaln nRegulatoryRegulatoryn nRepresentationalRepresentationaln nInteractionalInteractionaln nPersonalPersonaln nHeuristicHeuristicn nImaginativeImaginative34n nStill other classifications employ different categories and use different terms, but all share a lot in common about the basic functions of language. n nBelow is a summary of the major functions of Below is a summary of the major functions of language. language. 355.1 Informative functionn nLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language. n nIt is also called It is also called ideationalideational function in the function in the framework of functional grammar. framework of functional grammar. 36n nHalliday notes that n n“Language serves for the expression of ‘content’: that is, of the speaker's experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. ... 375.2 Interpersonal function n nBy far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.38n nFor example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 39n nAttached to the interpersonal function is its function of expressing identity. For example, n nthe chanting of a crowd at a football match, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, n nthe shouting of names or slogans at public the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, meetings, n nthe stage-managed audience reactions to TV the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows game shows n nThey all signal who we are and where we They all signal who we are and where we belong. belong. 40n nThe interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various other terms as in the following performative, emotive, expressive and phatic functions of language. They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal function.415.3 Performative functionn nThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics (Chapter 8). For example, n nI now declare the meeting open. I now declare the meeting open. n nI bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. 42n nThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. n nThe kind of language employed in performative The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.ritualized.43n nFor example, in Chinese when For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are the host or the people present are likely to say likely to say 岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安 as a means as a means of controlling the invisible forces of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely. affect their lives adversely. n nThe performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.445.4 Emotive functionn nThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. n nIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. n nGod, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. 45n nIt is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. n nFor example, a man may say For example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch! after after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter mutter DamnDamn when realizing that he has when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. forgotten an appointment. 46n nExclamations such as Man! Oh boy! and Hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a person's own feelings. n nSuch expressive utterances can also be a Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another's expressive use of reinforce one another's expressive use of language to show their solidarity.language to show their solidarity.475.5 Phatic communion n nPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. For example,n nMrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. n nMrs. Q: Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.n nMrs. P: Mrs. P: Thank you.Thank you.48n nWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. n nRitual exchanges about health or weather such Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as as Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayGood morning, God bless you, Nice day often often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open if it should channel of communication is open if it should be needed. be needed. 49n nDifferent cultures have different topics of phatic communion. n nAccording to David Crystal, the According to David Crystal, the weather is not a universal weather is not a universal conversation filler as the English conversation filler as the English might like to think. might like to think. n nRundiRundi women (in Burundi, Central women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, routinely Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say and politely say “I must go home “I must go home now, or my husband will beat me.”now, or my husband will beat me.” 505.6 Recreational function n nThe recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. n nHowever, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting. 51n nTo take one example, the well-known movie《《刘三姐刘三姐》》features a scene of “对歌对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.52n nIf you observe a children’s play, you will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: n nthe repetitive rhythms help to control the game, the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it. and the children plainly take great delight in it. Adults also have their way to appreciate Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. language for its own sake. 53n nFor instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. n nVery close here to Very close here to Jakobson'sJakobson's poetic function. poetic function.545.7 Metalingual function n nOur language can be used to talk about itself.n n boy ( +human, +male, -adult ) girl ( +human, -male, -adult ) man (+human, +male, +adult ) woman (+human, -male, +adult ) 55n nFor instance, instead of saying n nThe lion chased the unicorn The lion chased the unicorn all round the town, all round the town, n nthey say n nAll around the town the lion All around the town the lion chased the unicorn. chased the unicorn. A unicorn56n nThis is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in functional grammar.n nIt makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.human.576. What is Linguistics?n nThe scientific study of human languagen nAims of linguistic theory:n nWhat is knowledge of language? (What is knowledge of language? (CompetenceCompetence) )n nHow is knowledge of language acquired? How is knowledge of language acquired? ( (AcquisitionAcquisition) )n nHow is knowledge of language put to use? How is knowledge of language put to use? ( (PerformancePerformance/ /languagelanguage processingprocessing) )58n nA grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s language:n nPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the (the sounds and the sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)n nLexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)dictionary)n nMorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)n nSyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and sentences (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on well-and the constraints on well-formednessformedness of of sentences)sentences)n nSemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and sentences)(the meaning of words and sentences)597. Main branches of linguisticsn nPhoneticsn nPhonologyn nMorphologyn nSyntaxn nSemanticsn nPragmatics607.1 Phoneticsn nPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.61n nArticulatory phonetics studies how speech sounds are made. (from the speaker’s point of view)n nAcoustic phonetics studies how speech sounds are transmitted. ( about the sound waves ) n nAuditory phonetics studies how speech sounds are received. (from the hearer’s point of view) 627.2 Phonology n nPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. n nA A phonemephoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. sound that can signal a difference in meaning. 637.3 Morphology n nMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. n nAlthough many people think of words as the Although many people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of a languagebasic meaningful elements of a language，，，，many many words can be broken down into still smaller words can be broken down into still smaller units, called units, called morphemesmorphemes. . 64n nMorphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word. e.g. man , color, -ful, -ment, –tion, -ly pre-, post-, dis- -ed, -s 657.4 Syntax n nSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. n nI hit the man with a hammer.n n三个男人和女人的故事三个男人和女人的故事66n nWe know that words are organized into structures more than just word order. n nThe children watched [the firework from the The children watched [the firework from the hill ].hill ].n nThe children watched [the firework ] [from the The children watched [the firework ] [from the hill ].hill ].n nThe chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat. 677.5 Semantics n nSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. e.g. The hamburger ate the man.e.g. The hamburger ate the man.68n nThe following are what the key concepts look like: The following are what the key concepts look like: n nsemantic componentssemantic components e.g. boy [+human] [+male] [-adult] e.g. boy [+human] [+male] [-adult]n ndenotation of wordsdenotation of words basic\logic meaning of a word basic\logic meaning of a wordn nsense relationssense relations between words such as between words such as antonymyantonymy and and synonymysynonymy e.g. broad-wide mom-mother hide-conceale.g. broad-wide mom-mother hide-conceal happy-sad alive-dead true-false happy-sad alive-dead true-falsen nsense relationssense relations between sentences such as between sentences such as entailmententailment and and presuppositionpresupposition and others. and others.697.6 Pragmatics n nPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. 70n nCooperative Principles (Grice)Cooperative Principles (Grice) Quantity Maxim Quality Maxim Quantity Maxim Quality Maxim Manners Maxim Relation Maxim Manners Maxim Relation Maxim n nSpeech ActSpeech Act LocutionaryLocutionary Act Act Illocutionary ActIllocutionary Act PerlocutionaryPerlocutionary Act Act e.g. It’s cold here.e.g. It’s cold here. The temperature is low. The temperature is low. Could you turn on the heating system. Could you turn on the heating system. 718. Macrolinguistics n n微观语言学是对语言结构和系统的研究。

微观语言学是对语言结构和系统的研究 宏观语言学则扩充到其它的领域宏观语言学则扩充到其它的领域Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. n nOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. 72n nAlthough Saussure's goal was to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines, with its coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with other sciences. n nThe central goal of describing the underlying The central goal of describing the underlying system remains: this is the province of general, system remains: this is the province of general, descriptive linguistics. descriptive linguistics. 73n nBut since language has both individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists among others. n nTherefore it is not surprising that we have some Therefore it is not surprising that we have some branches of branches of macrolinguisticsmacrolinguistics that show an that show an interdisciplinary nature from their very names: interdisciplinary nature from their very names: 748.1 Psycholinguistics n nLanguage acquisition LAD language acquisition devicen nLanguage comprehensionn nLanguage production758.2 Sociolinguistics n nSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. 76n nSociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc. e.g. sexism in Chinese778.3 Anthropological linguistics n nAnthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork when anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages. n nIn contrast with other linguists, then, In contrast with other linguists, then, anthropological linguists are interested anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. formerly unwritten languages. 78n nBecause an unwritten language must be heard in order to be studied, it does not leave any traces once its speakers died off. n nAnthropological linguists must begin in the Anthropological linguists must begin in the present, with comparisons of contemporary present, with comparisons of contemporary languages. languages. n nThen they may draw inferences about the kinds Then they may draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have occurred of change in language that may have occurred in the past and that may account for similarities in the past and that may account for similarities and differences observed in the present. and differences observed in the present. 798.4 Computational linguistics n nComputational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages). 80n nMachine Translationn nCorpus Linguisticsn n Information Retrieval819. Important distinctions in linguistics n nDescriptive vs. prescriptive n nSynchronic vs. diachronicn nLangue & parolen nCompetence and performance829.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive n nDon't say X.n nPeople don't say X.n nThe first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. n nThe distinction lies in prescribing how things The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.ought to be and describing how things are.83n nThe reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two types of rules is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character, e.g. n nYou should never use a double-negative; You should never use a double-negative; n nYou should not split the infinitive; etc. You should not split the infinitive; etc. 84Humorous grammar rulesJJNever end a sentence with a preposition.JJAnd don't start a sentence with a conjunction. JJIt is wrong to ever split an infinitive.JJAvoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat.)JJAlso, always avoid annoying alliteration.JJNo sentence fragments.85n nIn the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. n n是索绪尔首先提出要是索绪尔首先提出要描写描写语言。

语言 是是描写描写还是还是规定规定语言，正是传统语法与现语言，正是传统语法与现 代语言学的分水岭代语言学的分水岭869.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic n nA synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. n n研究特定时间的语言体系研究特定时间的语言体系---语言状态语言状态 language state static linguistics87n nDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. n n研究语言在一定时期内怎样变化 language changes evolutionary linguistics889.3 Langue & parole n nSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. 89Langue & Parolen nLangue is the French word for language. The term is used by the linguist Saussure to mean the system of a language. Langue is the ideal form of a language. Saussure called the actual use of language by people in speech or writing parole.909.4 Competence and performance n nThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965). n nA language user's underlying A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic rules is called his linguistic competencecompetence. . n nPerformancePerformance refers to the actual refers to the actual use of language in concrete use of language in concrete situations.situations.91Competence & Performancen nCompetence: a complete knowledge of the whole language by the ideal speaker/hearer (not a real person)n nPerformance: the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.92n nSaussure’s distinction between langue and parole is similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance.n nlangue ____ speech community ___ basically sociolinguisticn nCompetence ____ ideal speaker/hearer___ basically psycholinguistic93。