ResearchMethods实用教案.ppt

第1页/共53页第一页，共54页1.￿Research￿Methods￿for￿Applied￿Linguistics:Scope,￿Characteristics,￿and￿Standards￿•1 The Scope of Applied Linguistics Research•2 Characteristics of Applied Linguistics Research•3 Standards for Sound Applied Linguistics Research•4 Ethical considerations第2页/共53页第二页，共54页1.1￿Defining￿applied￿linguistics￿research•1￿Definitions￿that￿listed￿the￿types￿of￿research￿(e.g.,￿“An￿investigation￿of￿a￿particular￿￿topic,￿or￿problem,￿￿through￿a￿document￿search￿and/or￿empirical￿study￿(the￿conducting￿of￿experiments)￿and￿analysis”￿and￿“Investigation￿through￿the￿￿reading￿￿of￿￿literature,￿￿experimentation￿￿and/or￿￿any￿￿other￿￿type￿￿of￿￿data￿gathering￿.￿.￿.”)￿•2￿￿Definitions￿￿that￿￿listed￿￿the￿￿topics￿￿of￿￿research￿￿(e.g.,￿￿“In￿￿its￿￿widest￿￿sense,￿￿to￿seek￿￿new￿￿ways￿￿to￿￿improve￿￿language￿￿education￿￿and￿￿intercultural￿￿communication￿￿training”￿￿and￿￿“Searching￿￿for￿￿information￿￿on￿￿how￿￿students￿process￿￿information,￿￿internalize￿￿data￿￿and￿￿retain￿￿it￿￿for￿￿communicative￿purposes.”)第3页/共53页第三页，共54页。

•3￿Definitions￿that￿covered￿the￿purpose￿of￿research￿(e.g.,￿“The￿search￿for￿information￿that￿will￿help￿practitioners￿(in￿this￿case,￿teachers)￿better￿carry￿out￿their￿jobs￿.￿.￿.”￿￿and￿￿“Systematic￿￿study￿￿of￿￿language￿￿issues￿￿and￿￿use￿￿in￿￿order￿￿to￿improve￿delivery￿of￿services￿to￿our￿students.”)•4￿Definitions￿￿that￿enumerated￿￿the￿steps￿￿in￿￿the￿process￿of￿research￿(e.g.,￿“Working￿toward￿￿truth,￿￿proving￿￿theories,￿￿trying￿￿out￿￿new￿￿approaches￿￿–￿￿and￿￿then￿compiling￿￿results,￿￿analyzing￿￿results￿￿and￿￿sharing￿￿with￿￿colleagues”￿￿and￿“Stating￿￿a￿hypothesis;￿gathering￿data;￿￿testing￿￿the￿hypothesis;￿￿relating￿￿the￿conclusions￿to￿￿issues￿at￿hand.”)第4页/共53页第四页，共54页。

•any￿systematic￿and￿principled￿inquiry￿in￿applied￿linguistics.第5页/共53页第五页，共54页2￿Characteristics￿of￿AppliedLinguistics￿Research•Applied￿￿linguistics￿￿research￿￿can￿￿be￿described￿￿from￿many￿different￿perspectives￿including￿at￿least￿•(1)￿the￿contextual￿factors￿involved￿in￿applied￿linguistics￿research,￿•(2)￿van￿Lier’s￿parameters￿of￿educational￿research￿design,￿•(3)￿Grotjahn’s￿data￿￿collection￿methods,￿￿data￿￿types,￿￿and￿￿data￿￿analysis￿￿procedures,￿￿•(4)￿￿other￿sets￿of￿research￿characteristics,￿and￿•(5)￿the￿qual–quant￿continuum.第6页/共53页第六页，共54页。

2.1￿Contextual￿factors￿in￿appliedlinguistics￿research•1￿International￿and￿national￿￿contexts.￿￿International￿and￿national￿organizations￿and￿￿governmental￿￿bodies￿￿support￿￿a￿￿fair￿￿amount￿￿of￿￿applied￿￿linguistics￿research.￿￿Since￿￿they￿￿control￿￿the￿￿money,￿￿their￿￿political￿￿priorities￿￿tend￿￿to￿influence￿who￿will￿do￿such￿research￿and￿how.•2￿Professional￿￿contexts.￿Within￿￿applied￿￿linguistics,￿￿the￿￿types￿￿of￿￿research￿￿that￿are￿popular￿￿at￿￿any￿￿given￿￿time￿vary;￿￿for￿￿a￿￿few￿￿years,￿￿interest￿￿in￿￿one￿￿type￿of￿￿research￿may￿￿increase￿￿at￿￿the￿￿expense￿￿of￿￿another,￿￿then￿￿interest￿may￿be￿rekindled￿￿for￿￿that￿￿latter￿￿type.￿￿In￿￿other￿words,￿￿even￿￿research￿￿can￿have￿￿its￿trends￿and￿fads.第7页/共53页第七页，共54页。

•3￿Institutional￿￿contexts.￿￿Institutional￿￿contexts￿￿in￿￿applied￿￿linguistics￿￿research￿can￿refer￿to￿everything￿from￿entire￿school￿districts,￿to￿individual￿language￿programs,￿￿or￿￿even￿￿to￿￿very￿￿specific￿￿individual￿￿tutoring￿￿situations.￿Within￿these￿institutional￿contexts￿a￿number￿of￿factors￿can￿influence￿the￿type￿and￿quality￿￿of￿￿research:￿￿the￿￿size￿￿of￿￿the￿￿institution,￿￿availability￿￿of￿￿resources￿￿to￿support￿research,￿￿institutional￿policies￿and￿priorities,￿the￿￿institution’s￿past￿experiences￿￿with￿￿researchers,￿￿and￿￿even￿￿the￿￿personalities￿￿of￿￿the￿￿various￿administrators￿and￿teachers￿￿involved.•4￿Local￿￿contexts.￿￿Local￿￿contexts￿￿refer￿￿to￿￿the￿￿specific￿￿circumstances￿￿in￿which￿the￿￿research￿will￿￿take￿place.￿The￿￿context￿may￿be￿￿a￿￿classroom,￿￿laboratory,￿private￿home,￿Internet￿bulletin￿board,￿or￿even￿a￿coffee￿shop.￿A￿number￿of￿factors￿￿in￿￿the￿￿local￿context￿may￿￿turn￿out￿￿to￿be￿￿important￿￿to￿￿the￿success￿or￿failure￿of￿a￿research￿study:第8页/共53页第八页，共54页。

•(a)￿physical￿context￿(e.g.,￿class￿size,￿￿layout￿of￿the￿school,￿etc.),•(b)￿time￿context￿(e.g.,￿minutes￿per￿class,￿classes￿per￿day,￿etc.),•(c)￿social￿context￿(e.g.,￿￿language￿backgrounds,￿ethnic￿mix￿of￿￿the￿students,￿etc.),•(d)￿pedagogical￿￿context￿￿(e.g.,￿￿teaching￿￿methods￿￿used,￿￿preferred￿￿learning￿styles￿of￿the￿students￿and￿teachers,￿etc.),•(e)￿psychological￿context￿￿(e.g.,￿comfort￿￿level￿of￿participants￿with￿regard￿￿to￿research￿studies,￿etc.).第9页/共53页第九页，共54页•5￿Personal￿contexts.￿Individual￿researchers￿have￿certain￿preconceptions￿about￿the￿aspects￿of￿applied￿linguistics￿that￿ought￿to￿be￿researched,￿the￿form￿that￿research￿should￿take,￿and￿their￿role￿in￿the￿research￿process.￿Such￿preconceptions￿and￿preferences￿arise￿from￿individual￿differences￿in￿abilities,￿personalities,￿motivations,￿priorities,￿training,￿etc.￿and￿may￿influence￿the￿types￿of￿research￿a￿particular￿￿individual￿or￿group￿will￿be￿￿interested￿￿in￿doing.第10页/共53页第十页，共54页。

2.2￿Van￿Lier’s￿parameters￿of￿educationalresearch￿design•As￿shown￿￿in￿Figure￿19.4￿￿(from￿van￿Lier,￿1988)￿research￿can￿also￿be￿described￿in￿￿terms￿of￿an￿￿intervention￿axis￿￿(i.e.,￿degree￿of￿￿intervention,￿￿from￿￿intervention￿to￿non-intervention)￿and￿a￿selectivity￿axis￿(i.e.,￿selectivity￿of￿focus,￿from￿highly￿selective￿￿to￿￿non-selective).￿￿•For￿￿example,￿￿on￿￿the￿￿intervention￿￿axis,￿￿research￿can￿￿take￿￿the￿￿form￿of￿a￿￿formal￿experimental￿design￿with￿a￿randomly￿assigned￿treatment￿and￿control￿groups,￿which￿would￿be￿an￿intervention￿study,￿or￿it￿can￿take￿￿the￿￿form￿￿of￿￿a￿￿series￿￿of￿￿informal￿￿classroom￿￿observations,￿which￿would￿be￿more￿￿in￿￿the￿￿direction￿￿of￿￿a￿￿non-intervention￿￿study.￿On￿￿the￿￿selectivity￿￿axis,￿research￿￿can￿￿be￿￿highly￿￿selective￿￿in￿￿focus￿￿(e.g.,￿￿obligatory￿￿use￿￿of￿￿the￿￿definite￿article￿by￿￿immigrant￿Chinese￿adolescent￿men￿￿from￿Guangdong￿province),￿or￿non-selective￿(e.g.,￿all￿language￿related￿behaviors￿observed￿of￿all￿participants￿in￿a￿population￿of￿students).第11页/共53页第十一页，共54页。

•The￿￿selectivity￿￿and￿￿intervention￿￿axes￿￿also￿￿create￿what￿￿van￿￿Lier￿￿calls￿￿four￿territories:•1￿controlling,￿in￿which￿the￿researcher￿conducts￿a￿carefully￿planned￿experiment￿restricted￿both￿￿in￿participants￿and￿content￿focus;•2￿measuring,￿￿in￿which￿￿intervention￿￿is￿minimal￿￿but￿￿the￿￿data￿￿focus￿￿is￿￿highly￿restricted;•3￿asking/doing,￿in￿which￿the￿researcher￿might￿intervene￿to￿ask￿participants￿to￿talk￿about￿what￿they￿are￿thinking;•4￿watching,￿in￿which￿the￿researcher￿￿just￿observes￿with￿both￿intervention￿and￿selectivity￿kept￿to￿a￿minimum.第12页/共53页第十二页，共54页。

2.3￿Grotjahn’s￿data￿collection￿methods,data￿types,￿and￿data￿analysis￿procedures•According￿￿to￿￿Grotjahn￿￿(1987),￿￿research￿￿can￿￿be￿￿classified￿￿in￿￿terms￿￿of￿￿data￿collection￿￿methods￿￿(i.e.,￿￿experimental￿￿vs.￿￿non-experimental),￿￿data￿￿types￿￿(i.e.,￿qualitative￿￿vs.￿￿quantitative),￿￿and￿￿data￿￿analysis￿￿procedures￿￿(statistical￿￿vs.￿￿interpretive).第13页/共53页第十三页，共54页2.4￿Other￿sets￿of￿research￿characteristics•2.4.1￿Time￿orientation•Another￿way￿to￿classify￿research￿is￿according￿to￿time￿orientation,￿or￿the￿amount￿of￿￿time￿￿invested￿￿in￿gathering￿data.￿Along￿￿those￿￿lines,￿￿studies￿￿are￿￿sometimes￿classified￿as￿either￿cross-sectional￿or￿￿longitudinal￿(e.g.,￿see￿Larsen-Freeman￿&￿Long,￿1991).￿•Cross-sectional￿studies￿are￿those￿conducted￿over￿a￿short￿period￿of￿time,￿often￿with￿a￿relatively￿large￿number￿of￿participants.￿For￿instance,￿a￿study￿might￿gather￿language￿proficiency￿data￿(using￿a￿test),￿motivation￿data￿(using￿a￿questionnaire),￿￿and￿￿personal￿￿information￿￿data￿￿(on￿￿the￿￿same￿￿questionnaire)￿from￿300￿students￿￿in￿a￿one-shot￿cross-sectional￿study.第14页/共53页第十四页，共54页。

•In￿￿contrast,￿￿longitudinal￿￿studies￿￿are￿￿typically￿￿carried￿￿out￿￿over￿￿a￿￿relatively￿long￿period￿of￿￿time,￿often￿with￿a￿small￿number￿of￿participants.￿For￿example,￿a￿￿study￿￿might￿￿dedicate￿￿five￿￿years￿￿to￿￿following￿￿five￿￿students￿￿of￿￿varying￿backgrounds,￿￿making￿￿careful￿￿observations￿￿of￿￿their￿￿language￿￿proficiency￿growth,￿￿their￿￿motivation￿￿to￿￿learn￿￿languages,￿￿their￿￿personal￿￿characteristics,￿etc.第15页/共53页第十五页，共54页•Other￿ways￿￿of￿￿describing￿￿the￿￿time￿￿orientation￿￿have￿￿recently￿￿surfaced￿￿like￿prolonged￿￿engagement￿￿(observations￿￿and￿￿involvement￿with￿￿a￿￿group￿￿of￿￿people￿over￿a￿￿long￿period￿of￿￿time),￿persistent￿observations￿(frequent￿observations￿over￿that￿￿long￿￿period￿￿of￿￿time),￿￿and￿￿the￿￿cyclical￿￿nature￿￿(data￿￿collection,￿￿analysis,￿interpretation,￿￿followed￿￿by￿￿further￿￿data￿￿collection,￿￿analysis,￿￿interpretation,￿etc.)￿￿of￿￿longitudinal￿￿studies￿￿in￿￿the￿￿exploratory-interpretative￿￿tradition￿￿(see￿especially,￿Davis,￿1995,￿pp.￿444–5).第16页/共53页第十六页，共54页。

2.4.2￿Theory￿generation•Studies￿￿can￿￿also￿￿differ￿￿in￿￿terms￿￿of￿￿theory￿￿generation,￿￿which￿￿can￿￿take￿￿two￿forms:￿hypothesis￿forming￿and￿hypothesis￿testing.￿•Hypothesis￿forming￿research￿may￿￿begin￿￿with￿￿some￿￿very￿￿general￿￿framing￿￿questions,￿￿but￿￿will￿￿typically￿have￿no￿hypotheses￿￿to￿￿start￿with.￿￿In￿￿such￿￿a￿￿study,￿￿the￿￿researcher￿will￿make￿every￿￿effort￿￿to￿￿keep￿￿an￿￿open￿￿mind￿￿and￿￿form￿￿hypotheses￿￿about￿￿what￿￿is￿going￿on￿only￿after￿a￿great￿many￿observations￿of￿various￿sorts.￿•The￿resulting￿hypotheses￿￿are￿￿typically￿￿considered￿￿part￿￿of￿￿the￿￿interpretation,￿￿and￿￿the￿researcher￿￿often￿￿goes￿￿back￿￿to￿￿the￿participants￿￿to￿￿ask￿￿them￿￿if￿￿the￿￿hypotheses￿are￿￿reasonable￿￿(in￿￿a￿￿process￿￿called￿￿member￿￿checking).￿￿One￿￿of￿￿the￿￿great￿strengths￿often￿￿cited￿￿for￿qualitative￿￿research￿￿is￿￿its￿potential￿￿for￿￿forming￿new￿hypotheses.第17页/共53页第十七页，共54页。

•In￿￿contrast,￿￿hypothesis￿￿testing￿￿research￿￿begins￿with￿￿a￿￿set￿￿of￿￿research￿￿questions￿￿and￿￿hypotheses.￿￿Sometimes￿￿the￿￿hypotheses￿￿are￿￿stated;￿￿more￿￿often￿they￿￿are￿￿implicit￿￿in￿￿the￿￿research￿￿questions.￿￿The￿￿statistical￿￿analyses￿￿in￿￿such￿studies￿￿are￿￿designed￿￿to￿￿formally￿￿test￿￿the￿￿probability￿￿that￿￿the￿￿hypotheses￿are￿￿true￿￿and￿￿typically￿￿include￿￿some￿￿form￿￿of￿￿probability￿￿statement,￿￿like￿p￿<￿0.01,￿which￿￿indicates￿￿that￿￿there￿￿is￿￿less￿￿than￿a￿one￿percent￿probability￿￿that￿the￿￿observed￿￿difference￿￿(or￿￿relationship)￿￿is￿￿a￿￿chance￿￿fluctuation.￿•One￿￿of￿￿the￿strengths￿￿often￿￿cited￿￿for￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿￿is￿￿its￿￿potential￿￿for￿￿hypothesis￿testing.第18页/共53页第十八页，共54页。

2.4.3￿Variable￿description•Similarly,￿variable￿description￿can￿take￿two￿forms￿in￿applied￿linguistics￿research:￿variable￿definition￿and￿variable￿operationalization.￿•In￿variable￿definition￿research,￿the￿￿researcher￿￿attempts￿￿to￿￿begin￿￿with￿￿no￿￿preconceived￿￿notions￿￿of￿￿what￿the￿￿important￿variables￿￿in￿￿the￿study￿will￿be,￿or￿how￿￿they￿will￿be￿defined.￿•As￿the￿study￿progresses,￿the￿process￿of￿discovering￿and￿describing￿variables￿serves￿to￿gradually￿define￿them.第19页/共53页第十九页，共54页•In￿￿variable￿￿operationalization￿￿research,￿￿the￿￿researcher￿￿clearly￿￿outlines￿￿the￿variables￿￿of￿￿interest￿￿from￿￿the￿￿outset￿￿(particularly￿￿the￿￿dependent,￿￿independent,￿and￿moderator￿variables)￿and￿explains￿how￿each￿one￿was￿operationalized,￿that￿is,￿how￿each￿one￿was￿observed￿or￿measured￿and￿quantified.￿•For￿instance￿the￿￿variable￿￿Japanese￿￿language￿￿proficiency￿￿might￿￿be￿￿operationalized￿￿a￿scores￿￿on￿￿a￿￿particular￿￿Japanese￿￿proficiency￿￿test,￿￿or￿￿the￿￿variable￿￿nationality￿might￿￿be￿￿operationalized￿￿as￿￿1￿￿for￿Chinese,￿￿2￿￿for￿￿Japanese,￿￿and￿￿3￿￿for￿Korean￿based￿on￿asking￿each￿of￿the￿participants￿what￿passport￿they￿hold,￿etc.第20页/共53页第二十页，共54页。

2.4.4￿Researcher￿perspective•The￿￿researcher’s￿￿perspective￿￿is￿￿sometimes￿￿described￿￿as￿￿either￿￿emic￿￿or￿￿etic.￿Researchers￿adopting￿the￿emic￿perspective￿make￿every￿effort￿to￿understand￿the￿point￿of￿view￿of￿the￿participants￿and￿to￿examine￿how￿the￿interpretations￿drawn￿from￿￿the￿￿research￿￿relate￿￿to￿￿those￿￿views￿￿through￿￿practices￿￿such￿￿as￿member￿checking￿(getting￿the￿participants’￿reactions￿to￿the￿interpretations￿drawn￿from￿the￿￿research).￿￿•Researchers￿￿assuming￿￿the￿￿etic￿￿perspective￿￿take￿￿an￿￿outsider’s￿view￿during￿the￿data￿gathering￿process,￿often￿attempting￿to￿be￿as￿objective￿as￿possible￿(for￿more￿on￿the￿emic/etic￿distinction,￿see￿Davis,￿1995,￿p.￿433).第21页/共53页第二十一页，共54页。

2.5￿The￿qual–quant￿continuum•2.5.1￿The￿qualitative￿versus￿quantitative￿dichotomy•Reichardt￿and￿Cook￿(1979,￿p.￿10)￿summarize￿the￿differences￿between￿qualitative￿and￿quantitative￿research￿as￿shown￿￿in￿Table￿19.2.￿Notice￿￿that￿￿the￿column￿on￿￿the￿￿left￿￿in￿￿Table￿￿19.2￿￿is￿￿labeled￿￿“Qualitative￿￿paradigm”￿￿and￿￿that￿￿the￿column￿￿to￿￿the￿￿on￿￿the￿￿right￿￿is￿￿labeled￿￿“Quantitative￿￿paradigm,”￿￿with￿￿each￿column￿￿containing￿￿adjectives￿￿and￿￿adjectival￿￿phrases￿￿describing￿￿each￿￿“paradigm.”￿•A￿number￿of￿these￿distinctions￿are￿uncontroversial￿and￿make￿eminent￿sense;￿for￿example,￿the￿fact￿that￿the￿qualitative￿paradigm￿advocates￿qualitative￿methods￿￿and￿￿the￿￿quantitative￿￿paradigm￿￿advocates￿￿quantitative￿￿methods￿and￿￿the￿￿fact￿￿that￿￿the￿qualitative￿paradigm￿￿is￿￿typically￿naturalistic￿where￿￿the￿quantitative￿paradigm￿would￿more￿accurately￿be￿characterized￿as￿controlled.第22页/共53页第二十二页，共54页。

•However,￿I￿disagree￿with￿other￿distinctions,￿especially￿those￿that￿begin￿with￿un-.￿“Uncontrolled￿observation”￿and￿“ungeneralizable”￿both￿seem￿to￿me￿to￿be￿unfair￿characterizations￿of￿qualitative￿research.￿•The￿observations￿in￿qualitative￿research￿￿are￿￿often￿well￿￿planned￿￿and￿￿structured￿￿in￿￿their￿￿own￿ways,￿￿as￿￿in￿￿a￿well-designed￿interview￿schedule,￿a￿classroom￿observation￿checklist,￿or￿a￿carefully￿planned￿discourse￿coding￿scheme.￿•“Ungrounded”￿appears￿to￿me￿to￿be￿an￿equally￿unfair￿characterization￿of￿quantitative￿research￿because￿such￿research￿is￿￿sometimes￿quite￿exploratory.￿￿I￿would￿also￿argue￿￿that￿￿the￿use￿of￿￿the￿￿terms￿subjective￿and￿objective￿has￿become￿outdated￿partly￿because￿the￿two￿terms￿have￿become￿highly￿￿loaded￿over￿￿the￿years￿￿(Porter,￿1998)￿and￿partly￿because￿￿those￿loaded￿meanings￿do￿not￿accurately￿characterize￿the￿two￿types￿of￿research.￿第23页/共53页第二十三页，共54页。

2.5.2￿General￿problems￿with￿the￿qualitative￿versus￿quantitative￿dichotomy•Such￿a￿qualitative￿versus￿quantitative￿approach￿also￿has￿a￿number￿of￿general￿problems:￿•1￿Dichotomizing￿qualitative￿versus￿quantitative￿research￿leaves￿out￿altogether￿secondary￿research￿types￿￿like￿￿literature￿reviews.•2￿It￿￿treats￿￿as￿￿monolithic￿￿at￿￿least￿￿seven￿￿very￿￿distinct￿￿qualitative￿￿research￿techniques￿￿(case￿￿study￿￿research;￿￿introspection￿￿research;￿￿discourse￿￿analysis￿research;￿￿interactional￿￿analysis￿￿research;￿￿classroom￿￿observation￿￿research;￿interviews;￿and￿questionnaires).•3￿It￿￿represents￿￿as￿monolithic￿￿at￿￿least￿￿ten￿￿qualitative￿￿research￿￿traditions￿￿that￿come￿￿from￿￿a￿￿variety￿￿of￿￿other￿￿fields￿￿like￿￿anthropology￿￿and￿￿theology￿￿(see￿Table￿19.3,￿adapted￿slightly￿from￿Lazaraton,￿1995,￿p.￿460).第24页/共53页第二十四页，共54页。

•4￿It￿￿presents￿￿as￿monolithic￿￿at￿￿least￿￿six￿￿very￿￿different￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿techniques￿￿(interviews;￿￿questionnaires;￿￿descriptive;￿￿exploratory;￿￿quasiexperimental;￿and￿experimental).•5￿It￿ignores￿the￿way￿survey￿research,￿including￿interviews￿and￿questionnaires,￿is￿both￿qualitative￿and￿quantitative.•6￿It￿ignores￿the￿ways￿researchers￿often￿combine￿qualitative￿and￿quantitative￿research￿￿techniques￿￿(as￿￿shown￿￿above￿￿in￿￿the￿￿Grotjahn’s￿￿analysis￿￿in￿Table￿19.1).•7￿It￿￿confuses￿￿research￿￿methods￿￿(interpretive,￿￿survey,￿￿and￿￿statistical)￿￿and￿research￿￿techniques￿￿(like￿￿those￿￿listed￿￿in￿￿the￿￿second￿￿and￿￿fourth￿￿points￿above).第25页/共53页第二十五页，共54页。

2.5.3￿The￿qual–quant￿￿interactive￿continuum•Perhaps￿a￿more￿constructive￿and￿accurate￿approach￿would￿be￿to￿view￿qualitative￿￿and￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿￿as￿￿a￿matter￿￿of￿￿degrees,￿￿a￿￿continuum,￿￿rather￿than￿a￿clear-cut￿dichotomy￿like￿the￿one￿shown￿in￿Table￿19.2.￿As￿Newman￿and￿Benz￿￿(1998)￿put￿￿it,￿￿“All￿￿behavioral￿￿research￿￿is￿made￿up￿￿of￿￿a￿￿combination￿￿of￿qualitative￿and￿quantitative￿constructs”￿￿(p.￿9).￿They￿advocate￿￿the￿notion￿of￿a￿qual–quant￿￿research￿￿continuum,￿as￿opposed￿￿to￿a￿dichotomy,￿and￿￿insist￿￿that￿￿the￿continuum￿be￿considered￿“interactive.”第26页/共53页第二十六页，共54页。

第27页/共53页第二十七页，共54页第28页/共53页第二十八页，共54页•Figure￿19.5￿￿shows￿how￿12￿￿research￿￿characteristics￿￿can￿be￿￿combined￿￿to￿￿create￿an￿almost￿infinite￿number￿of￿possible￿interrelationships￿and￿thus￿to￿describe￿a￿wide￿variety￿of￿different￿research￿types.第29页/共53页第二十九页，共54页3￿Standards￿for￿Sound￿AppliedLinguistics￿Research•The￿￿qual–quant￿￿not￿￿only￿￿provides￿￿an￿￿interactive￿￿continuum￿￿useful￿￿for￿characterizing￿￿applied￿￿linguistics￿￿research￿￿but￿￿can￿￿also￿￿serve￿￿as￿￿a￿￿basis￿￿for￿understanding￿the￿standards￿that￿researchers￿use￿in￿judging￿the￿soundness￿of￿such￿￿research.￿This￿discussion￿will￿￿again￿￿focus￿on￿primary￿￿research,￿￿leaving￿secondary￿￿research￿￿out￿￿because￿￿it￿￿involves￿￿a￿￿separate￿￿set￿￿of￿￿issues.￿￿Because￿I￿￿consistently￿￿started￿with￿￿the￿￿qualitative-exploratory￿￿end￿￿of￿￿the￿￿continuum￿in￿￿the￿￿previous￿￿section,￿￿out￿￿of￿￿fairness,￿￿I￿￿will￿￿start￿￿with￿￿the￿￿quantitative-￿experimental￿end￿￿in￿this￿section.第30页/共53页第三十页，共54页。

3.1￿The￿quantitative-experimental￿end￿ofthe￿continuum•Researchers￿at￿￿the￿quantitative-experimental￿end￿of￿￿the￿continuum￿value￿￿the￿concepts￿￿of￿￿reliability,￿￿replicability,￿￿validity,￿￿and￿￿generalizability.￿￿•Generally￿speaking,￿those￿are￿the￿standards￿quantitative￿researchers￿hold￿up￿in￿￿judging￿the￿soundness￿of￿their￿research.第31页/共53页第三十一页，共54页3.1.1￿Reliability•The￿￿standard￿￿of￿￿reliability￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿￿requires￿￿researchers￿￿to￿demonstrate￿￿both￿￿(1)￿￿the￿￿reliability￿￿of￿￿the￿￿instruments￿￿used￿￿in￿￿their￿￿studies￿and￿￿(2)￿￿the￿￿reliability￿￿of￿￿the￿￿results￿￿of￿￿their￿￿studies.￿•Reliability￿￿of￿￿instruments￿is￿￿concerned￿￿with￿￿the￿￿degree￿￿to￿￿which￿￿the￿￿results￿￿of￿￿a￿￿questionnaire,￿￿test,￿or￿other￿measuring￿￿instrument￿are￿consistent.￿Addressing￿￿this￿￿issue￿￿typically￿means￿￿answering￿￿the￿￿question:￿￿To￿￿what￿￿degree￿￿would￿￿the￿￿results￿￿be￿￿the￿same￿if￿the￿instrument￿were￿administered￿repeatedly?￿•Similarly,￿the￿reliability￿of￿￿the￿￿results￿￿of￿￿a￿￿study￿￿is￿￿concerned￿￿with￿￿the￿￿degree￿￿to￿￿which￿￿the￿￿results￿would￿￿be￿￿likely￿￿to￿￿reappear￿￿if￿￿the￿￿study￿￿were￿￿replicated￿￿under￿￿the￿￿same￿conditions.第32页/共53页第三十二页，共54页。

3.1.2￿Replicability•The￿￿standard￿￿of￿￿replicability￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿￿requires￿￿researchers￿to￿￿provide￿￿enough￿￿information￿￿about￿￿a￿￿study￿￿to￿￿allow￿￿other￿￿researchers￿￿to￿replicate￿￿or￿￿repeat￿￿the￿￿study￿￿exactly￿￿as￿￿it￿￿was￿￿originally￿￿conducted.￿￿•The￿replicability￿of￿a￿quantitative￿study￿can￿be￿improved￿by￿thorough￿and￿complete￿descriptions￿of:￿￿(1)￿￿the￿participants￿￿in￿￿the￿study￿and￿how￿￿they￿were￿selected,•(2)￿the￿instruments￿used￿in￿the￿study￿as￿well￿as￿arguments￿for￿their￿reliability￿and￿￿validity,￿￿and￿￿•(3)￿￿the￿procedures￿￿followed￿￿in￿￿collecting￿￿the￿data,￿￿scoring￿or￿coding￿the￿instruments,￿and￿analyzing￿the￿results￿(see￿Brown,￿1988,￿ch.￿5￿for￿a￿￿more￿￿complete￿￿discussion￿￿of￿￿what￿￿should￿￿be￿￿included￿￿to￿￿make￿￿a￿￿study￿adequately￿replicable).第33页/共53页第三十三页，共54页。

3.1.3￿Validity•The￿￿standard￿￿of￿￿validity￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿￿requires￿￿researchers￿￿to￿demonstrate￿both￿￿internal￿and￿external￿validity.￿￿•Internal￿validity￿￿is￿￿the￿degree￿to￿which￿the￿results￿of￿a￿study￿can￿be￿accurately￿interpreted￿as￿meaning￿what￿they￿appear￿￿to￿mean.￿•External￿validity￿￿is￿￿the￿degree￿￿to￿which￿￿the￿￿results￿of￿a￿study￿￿are￿￿contrived￿￿or￿￿artificial,￿￿or￿￿put￿￿another￿￿way,￿￿the￿￿degree￿￿to￿￿which￿the￿￿results￿￿apply￿￿to￿￿the￿￿outside￿world.￿Listed￿￿below￿￿are￿￿a￿number￿￿of￿￿issues￿identified￿by￿Campbell￿and￿Stanley￿￿(1963)￿as￿potential￿￿threats￿￿to￿￿the￿￿internal￿and￿external￿validity￿of￿a￿study:第34页/共53页第三十四页，共54页。

第35页/共53页第三十五页，共54页•The￿internal￿and￿external￿validity￿of￿a￿quantitative￿study￿can￿be￿improved￿by￿consciously￿guarding￿against￿all￿of￿these￿threats￿when￿planning￿and￿conducting￿research￿(for￿more￿on￿controlling￿these￿potential￿threats,￿see￿Campbell￿&￿Stanley,￿1963;￿Brown,￿1988,￿1997;￿or￿Hatch￿&￿Lazaraton,￿1991).第36页/共53页第三十六页，共54页3.1.4￿Generalizability•As￿mentioned￿￿above,￿￿the￿￿standard￿￿of￿￿generalizability￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿￿research￿requires￿￿researchers￿￿to￿￿show￿￿the￿degree￿￿to￿which￿￿the￿￿results￿￿of￿￿a￿￿study￿￿can￿justifiably￿be￿generalized,￿or￿applied,￿to￿a￿larger￿population￿or￿to￿other￿similar￿groups.￿•A￿￿study￿￿can￿￿be￿￿extremely￿well￿￿designed,￿￿controlled,￿￿and￿￿internally￿valid,￿￿but￿￿lack￿￿external￿￿validity.￿￿The￿￿problem￿￿is￿￿that￿￿controls,￿￿when￿introduced,￿may￿make￿the￿study￿artificial￿and￿thus￿limit￿the￿external￿validity.第37页/共53页第三十七页，共54页。

3.2￿The￿qualitative-exploratory￿end￿of￿the￿continuum•Researchers￿￿at￿￿the￿￿qualitative-exploratory￿￿end￿￿of￿￿the￿￿continuum￿￿value￿￿the￿concepts￿￿of￿￿dependability,￿￿confirmability,￿￿credibility,￿￿and￿￿transferability.•Generally￿￿speaking,￿￿those￿￿are￿￿the￿￿standards￿￿qualitative￿￿researchers￿￿hold￿￿up￿in￿￿judging￿the￿soundness￿of￿their￿research.第38页/共53页第三十八页，共54页3.2.1￿Dependability•The￿￿standard￿of￿dependability￿￿in￿qualitative￿￿research￿￿requires￿￿that￿￿researchers￿account￿for￿(1)￿any￿shifting￿conditions￿directly￿related￿to￿the￿people￿and￿things￿they￿are￿studying￿and￿•￿(2)￿any￿modifications￿￿they￿have￿made￿￿in￿￿the￿design￿of￿their￿￿study￿￿as￿￿it￿￿has￿￿progressed.￿￿•The￿￿purpose￿￿of￿￿such￿￿accounting￿￿is￿￿to￿￿help￿researchers￿and￿￿their￿￿readers￿get￿a￿more￿￿exact￿understanding￿of￿￿the￿￿context.•Dependability￿￿is￿￿roughly￿￿analogous￿￿to￿￿the￿￿concept￿￿of￿￿reliability￿￿(described￿above)￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿￿studies.￿￿The￿￿dependability￿￿of￿￿a￿￿qualitative￿￿study￿￿can￿be￿￿improved￿by￿using￿￿such￿￿techniques￿￿as￿￿stepwise￿￿replications,￿overlapping￿methods,￿and/or￿￿inquiry￿audits￿(for￿more￿on￿these￿concepts,￿see￿Davis,￿1992,￿1995;￿or￿Brown,￿2001).第39页/共53页第三十九页，共54页。

3.2.2￿Confirmability•The￿standard￿of￿confirmability￿￿in￿qualitative￿research￿requires￿that￿researchers￿fully￿reveal￿the￿data￿they￿are￿basing￿their￿￿interpretations￿on,￿or￿at￿￿least￿make￿those￿data￿available.￿•The￿point￿is￿that,￿whether￿or￿not￿anybody￿actually￿takes￿the￿￿researchers￿up￿on￿￿it,￿￿they￿￿should￿make￿￿their￿data￿available￿￿so￿￿that￿other￿researchers￿￿could￿￿examine￿￿them￿￿and￿￿confirm,￿￿reject,￿￿or￿modify￿￿the￿￿original￿interpretations.￿￿•The￿￿confirmability￿￿of￿￿a￿￿qualitative￿￿study￿￿is￿￿approximately￿analogous￿￿to￿￿the￿￿concept￿￿of￿￿replicability￿￿(described￿￿above)￿￿in￿￿quantitative￿studies.￿￿•Confirmability￿￿can￿￿be￿￿improved￿￿by￿￿using￿￿audit￿￿trails￿￿(as￿described￿briefly￿in￿Davis,￿1992,￿1995;￿Brown,￿2001;￿or￿in￿more￿detail￿in￿Lincoln￿&￿Guba,￿1985).第40页/共53页第四十页，共54页。

3.2.3￿Credibility•The￿standard￿of￿credibility￿in￿qualitative￿research￿requires￿researchers￿to￿show￿that￿￿they￿maximized￿￿the￿￿accuracy￿of￿￿their￿definitions￿￿and￿￿their￿￿characterizations￿￿of￿￿the￿people￿￿or￿￿things￿under￿￿investigation￿￿–￿￿especially￿￿as￿￿the￿￿various￿participants￿￿in￿￿the￿￿study￿￿judged￿￿those￿￿interpretations.￿•Credibility￿￿is￿more￿or￿less￿analogous￿to￿the￿concept￿of￿internal￿validity￿(described￿above)￿in￿quantitative￿￿studies.￿￿•The￿￿credibility￿￿of￿￿qualitative￿￿studies￿￿can￿￿be￿￿enhanced￿￿by￿￿using￿such￿￿techniques￿as￿member￿checking,￿negative￿case￿analysis,￿peer￿debriefing,￿persistent￿￿observations,￿￿prolonged￿￿engagement,￿￿referential￿￿analysis,￿￿and/or￿triangulation￿￿(for￿more￿on￿￿these￿￿techniques,￿see￿Davis,￿1992,￿1995;￿or￿Brown,￿2001).第41页/共53页第四十一页，共54页。

3.2.4￿Transferability•The￿￿standard￿￿of￿￿transferability￿￿in￿￿qualitative￿￿research￿￿requires￿￿researchers￿to￿￿describe￿￿the￿￿research￿￿design,￿￿context,￿￿and￿￿conditions￿￿so￿￿well￿￿that￿￿the￿readers￿￿can￿￿decide￿￿for￿￿themselves￿￿if￿￿the￿￿interpretations￿￿apply￿￿to￿￿another￿context￿with￿which￿￿they￿￿are￿￿familiar.￿￿•Transferability￿￿in￿￿qualitative￿￿research￿is￿￿approximately￿￿analogous￿￿to￿￿the￿￿concept￿￿of￿￿generalizability￿￿(described￿above)￿in￿quantitative￿studies.￿•Transferability￿can￿be￿enhanced￿by￿using￿thick￿description￿(for￿more￿on￿this￿notion,￿see￿Davis,￿1992,￿1995;￿Lazaraton,￿1995;￿or￿Brown,￿2001).第42页/共53页第四十二页，共54页。

3.3￿How￿interactive￿are￿the￿standards￿ofsound￿research?•Figure￿￿19.6￿￿is￿my￿￿attempt￿￿to￿￿represent￿￿the￿￿interactive￿￿relationships￿￿among￿the￿￿various￿￿standards￿￿continua.￿￿Recall￿￿that￿￿earlier,￿￿I￿￿defined￿￿interactive￿as￿all￿￿possible￿￿combinations￿￿of￿￿the￿￿points￿￿along￿￿the￿￿continua.￿￿•In￿￿other￿words,￿for￿￿each￿￿of￿￿the￿￿standards￿￿continua￿￿in￿￿Figure￿￿19.6,￿￿a￿￿study￿￿may￿￿need￿￿to￿focus￿￿entirely￿￿on￿￿the￿￿standard￿￿at￿￿the￿￿qualitative-exploratory￿￿end￿￿of￿￿the￿￿continuum￿or￿￿the￿￿standard￿￿at￿￿the￿quantitative-experimental￿￿end.￿￿•In￿other￿￿cases,￿researchers￿￿may￿￿need￿￿to￿￿balance￿￿their￿￿concern￿￿for￿￿standards￿￿at￿￿both￿￿ends￿of￿￿the￿￿continuum￿￿to￿￿varying￿￿degrees.第43页/共53页第四十三页，共54页。

第44页/共53页第四十四页，共54页3.4￿Ethical￿considerations•General￿social￿sciences￿research￿ethics￿have￿been￿discussed￿from￿many￿points￿of￿view￿(for￿an￿overview￿of￿this￿work,￿see￿Kimmel,￿1988).￿•Periodically￿over￿the￿years￿various￿national￿and￿international￿organizations￿have￿even￿attempted￿to￿provide￿￿guidelines￿￿for￿￿their￿memberships￿￿(e.g.,￿￿the￿American￿￿Psychological￿Association,￿￿which￿￿has￿￿provided￿￿various￿￿sets￿￿of￿￿guidelines￿￿for￿￿the￿￿ethical￿conduct￿of￿research:￿1953,￿1982,￿1994).•Kimmel￿(1988)￿discussed￿some￿of￿the￿sorts￿of￿ethical￿problems￿that￿arise￿￿in￿social￿sciences￿research:第45页/共53页第四十五页，共54页。

第46页/共53页第四十六页，共54页•Instead￿of￿dwelling￿on￿￿the￿potential￿problems￿￿that￿unethical￿behavior￿￿can￿cause￿in￿research,￿I￿would￿prefer￿to￿simply￿delineate￿some￿of￿the￿steps￿that￿can￿be￿taken￿to￿avoid￿ethical￿pitfalls￿in￿applied￿linguistics￿research￿anywhere￿along￿the￿￿qual–quant￿￿continuum.￿￿Some￿￿of￿￿the￿most￿￿important￿￿ethical￿￿and￿￿professional￿￿responsibilities￿￿fall￿￿into￿￿three￿￿categories￿￿(adapted￿￿from￿￿Brown,￿￿1997):￿participant￿issues,￿analysis￿responsibilities,￿and￿concerns￿for￿the￿audience￿of￿a￿study:第47页/共53页第四十七页，共54页。

第48页/共53页第四十八页，共54页第49页/共53页第四十九页，共54页第50页/共53页第五十页，共54页•Since￿￿ethics￿￿is￿￿an￿￿area￿￿where￿￿all￿￿research￿methods￿￿and￿￿techniques￿￿come￿together￿and￿tend￿to￿agree,￿I￿will￿end￿here.￿However,￿I￿would￿like￿to￿mention￿one￿further￿set￿of￿considerations￿that￿is￿seldom￿listed￿in￿discussions￿of￿research￿ethics.￿￿•In￿my￿view,￿all￿￿researchers￿￿in￿applied￿￿linguistics￿have￿￿two￿overriding￿ethical￿￿responsibilities:￿￿(1)￿￿to￿￿continue￿￿reading,￿￿learning,￿￿and￿￿growing￿￿as￿researchers￿in￿order￿to￿better￿serve￿the￿field,￿and￿•(2)￿to￿design￿research￿that￿is￿effective￿￿and￿￿fits￿￿well￿￿into￿￿the￿￿particular￿￿institutional￿￿contexts￿￿involved￿￿by￿selecting￿those￿characteristics￿and￿standards￿along￿the￿qual–quant￿continuum￿that￿￿will￿￿best￿￿interact￿￿to￿￿provide￿￿systematic￿￿and￿￿principled￿￿answers￿￿to￿￿the￿many￿￿important￿questions￿that￿remain￿to￿be￿answered￿￿in￿applied￿￿linguistics.第51页/共53页第五十一页，共54页。

Thanks!第52页/共53页第五十二页，共54页谢谢(xiè xie)大家观赏！第53页/共53页第五十三页，共54页内容(nèiróng)总结第1页/共53页谢谢大家(dàjiā)观赏第五十四页，共54页。