认知语言学：框架与构式ppt课件.ppt

第五章第五章 框架及构式框架及构式Chapter 5 Frame and ConstructionsContents5.1 Frame and Scripts 框架与脚本5.2 Event-frame and the windowing of attention 事件框架和开启注意力视窗5.3 Language-specific framing and its use in narrative texts 特定语言框架及其在叙述文本中的使用5.4 Construction Grammar 构式语法5.1 Frame and Scripts The notion of frame was introduced into linguistics by Charles Fillmore in the middle of the 1970s based on his by now classic example, the "commercial event " frame.框架这一概念由 Charles Fillmore于20世纪70年代中期引入的语言学，它的基础是“商商务事件事件”框架。

框架An example of BUYADThe Frame of BUY Mary bought some books from John for 500 dollors . some booksB (goods) A (buyer) Mary C (money) 500 dollorsD (seller) JohnFrame and perspectiveThe assignment of syntactic roles is governed by the choice of the verb buy, which is the syntactic perspective.The notion of perspective relies on the principle of prominence, that is on figure/ground segregation.The [BUY] frame is not just a useful tool for the syntactic description of the verb buy, but it can also be applied to the verbs sell, charge and pay.  The difference of the four verbs is simply a change of perspective within the same frame. (1) David bought an old shirt from John for ten pounds.(2) John sold an old shirt toDavid for ten pounds. (3) John charged David ten pounds for an old shirt. (4) David paid ten pounds to John for an old shirt.The two verbs buy and pay describe the comercial event from the BUYER's perspective, while sell and charge perspectivize the situation from the SELLER's point of view.Frame and perspectiveThis is a first sign that the frame approach goes beyond the figure and ground approach in that it pays more attention to the less prominent parts of sentences like adverbials.The frame notion:different conceptions and related concepts the notion of frame any system of linguistic choicescollections of wordschoices of grammatical rules or linguistic categriesStarting out from this linguistic position, the conception of the frame notion has shifted towards a cognitive interpretation.The frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsEvery sentence evokes a certain cognitive perspective on a situation by the choice of the verb and the particular syntactic pattern that it governs.The basis for perspective is mainly provided by the cognitive ability of directing one's attention.The similarities between two approaches :the figure and ground approach & the frame and attention approachThe frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsthe profiling of participants in an interactive network as syntactic figure and groundthe notion of perspectivizing two elements of a frame as subject and object≈They rely on Fillmore's early Case Grammer,and share the belief that clause patterns cannot be seen in isolation but against their cognitive backgroundThe frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsThe differences between the two approaches:(1)Researches working in the frame paradigm are interested in problems related to the meaning of the verbs that belong to a frame.(2)The frame approach presents a unified view of syntactic patterns,(3) the figure and ground approach mainly emphasizes the two prominent entities on the level of clause in the syntactic figure and the syntactic ground; however, the frame has something to say about linguistic items that attract only a small portion of our attention potential.Examples: 5.David spent ten pounds on an old shirt. 6.The old shirt cost David ten pounds.The frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsFrames can be conceived as a way of describing the cognitive context which provides the background for and is associated with cognitive categories.The frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsFrames are just one of variety of cognitive models which also include the 'scenarios', domains and interactive networks and the 'scrips' .From frames to scripts:flying on a planeThe relevence of frames extends over the boundaries of single sentences to much larger linguistic and congnitive units.The following little story:Sue caught a plane from London to Madrid. After she had found her seat she checked whether the life vest was beneath it, but she could not find it. So she asked the flight attendant to find one for her.Attention: the two occurrences of the definite article the. From frames to scripts:flying on a planeQuestion: Why so the two uses of the definite article sound completely nautral, although they cannot be explained with the rules of grammar alone?Explaination:We need to make inferences that are based on our world knowledge to understand the definite references.Cognitive categories act both as anchors and as triggers for frames.Frame is in the format of categories and their interrelations that frames are designed and it is by the same categories that they are activated.Categories is to provide “default assignments” by supplying context-dependent prototypes.From frames to scripts:flying on a planeAll these expectations that are based on our experience and stored in our long-term memory are part of the frame-system and influence our ability to produce and understand the language related to it.所有这些基于我们的经验并储存在长期记忆中的预期都是框架系统的组成部分，并且影响我们产生和理解与之有关的语言的能力。

From frames to scripts:flying on a planeFrom frames to scripts:flying on a planeThe[FLYING ON A PLANE] frame has so far been presented as if it were a motley collection of categories. A flight exhibits a very predictable temporal structure in which one stage is often a prerequisite for the next stage.Viewing the flight from such a sequential perspective, we go beyond simple frames and move into the scripts, i.e. knowledge structures that are particularly designed for frequently recurring event sequences.From frames to scripts:flying on a planeThe restaurant scriptThe RESTAURANT script as developed by the computer scientist Roger Schank and the social psychologist Robert Abelson.It can be divided into 4 scenes: Entering, ordering, eating and exiting. In entering, a number of condition must be fufilled.props 道具道具roles 人物人物entry conditions进入条件入条件桌子 tables菜单 menu食物 food(F)账单 bill 钱 money顾客 customer (S)服务生 waiter (W)厨师 cook (C)收银员 cashier(M)店主 owner (O)S 饿了 S is hungryS 有钱 S has moneyOrdering scene of the restaurant scriptsAlthough we are all familiar with the information stored in scripts, when we produce or listen to language we unconsciously fill in an incredible amount of information taken from frames and scripts.eg. John went into a restaurant. He asked the waitress for coq au vin. He paind the bill and left.Without supplying this information we would certainly not be able to understand even the most simple pieces of discourse.eg. John went into a restaurant. He saw a waitress. He got up and went home.5.2 Event -frames and the windowing of attentionFrames can provide valuable tools for the linguistic and conceptual analysis of situations like buying and selling, or having a meal in a restaurant . The notion of frame can be extended to describe more general situations, such as event chains linked by temporal sequences or causation.The information provided by the frame is still fairly specific. For example: the everyday practices of paying by credit card.However, the frame would not be valid at all in culture where goods are traded for other goods rather than sold for money.Therefore, frames are cognitive structures that are context-and- culture- dependent.The question is the notion of frame:1) is restricted to certain contexts and culturesor 2) can be conceieved of as being a much more basic cognitive phenomenon that underlines a wide variety of real-world situations and is shared by all human beings.Such a universalist-cognitive line of research is pursued by Talmy in his investigation of event types.Motion event and motion event-framesTo understand Talmy's motion event , let's first review the situations with moving objects mentioned in this book.Granted that figure/ ground segregation is a universally valid principle of perception, the three components, "FIGURE", "GROUND" and "PATH" are crucial for a cognitive description of a motion event.Step further, "MOTION" can be regarded as a fourth component of motion event. In addition to the conceptual component "moving", "fly", in the sentence" A ballon flew over the house", also describes the way or "MANNER" of the movement , and this may be regarded as the fifth component to the structure of a motion event.For a motion event to take place, something must have caused the moving object to start moving or stay in motion.This CAUSE element can be an inportant factor in the conceptualization of motion event.Six cognitive components "FIGURE", "GROUND", "PATH", "MOTION", "MANNER" and "CAUSE" define the motion event-frame.FIGURE MOTION PATH GROUND主体主体 位移位移 路径路径 背景背景FIGURE MOTION PATH GROUND主体主体 位移位移 路径路径 背景背景"GENUINE" MOTION真正“位移” LOCATEDNESS静止状态The pencil rolled off the table.铅笔 从桌子上滚落下来。

The pencil lay on the table铅笔放在桌子上The pencil blew off the table.铅笔从桌子上被吹落了下来The pencil dtuck on the table (after I glued it) .铅笔粘在了桌子上（在我粘上它之后）MANNER方式CAUSE 原因Generalized from motion event, Talmy defines the notion of event-frame as the following:"A set of conceptual elements and interrelationships that ...are evoked together or co-evoke each other can be said to liee within or constitute an event-frame, while the elements that are conceieved of as incidental-whether evoked weakly or not at all- lie outside the event-frame." (Talmy 2000/I:259)Talmy identifies five types of event-frames:motion event-frames 位移事件框架 causation event-frames 致使事件框架cyclic event-frames 循环事件框架 participant-interaction event-frames 参与者互动事件框架interrelationship event-frames 相互关系事件框架Windowing of attention in motion event-framesA flight situation:On 26 July 1909 Louis Bleriot flew across the English Channel from Les Baraques to Dover.1909年7月26日 Louis Bleriot从Les Baraques到Dover飞过英吉利海峡。

FIGURE 主体主体MOTION位移位移PATH 路径路径GROUND 背景背景Louis Bleriotflewacrossthe English ChannelTheir specific function becomes clearer when we consider all three spatial adverbials contained in this sentence. While the first (across the channel) is seen as evoking the whole PATH component of the motion event-frame, the second and third (from Les Baraques and to Dover) are regarded as explicit sepecifications of the PATH component drawing attention to its initial and final points.This cognitive process of forgrounding certain portions of an event-frame is called windowing of attenion by Talmy.The conceptual material that makes up part of an event-frame is background is labelled Gapping.Pathwindowing attentional windows can be pathgapping "opened "and "closed" Schematic representation of positional types of windowing 视窗位置类型的图示展示视窗位置类型的图示展示 medial windowing PATH FIGURE in motion initial final windowing windowing GROUND Open path 开放路径开放路径The crate that was in the aircraft's cargo bay fell-飞机机货舱中的板条箱掉中的板条箱掉-1.Single windows: 单一视窗a: intial windowing --- out of the airplaneb: medial windowing ----through the airc: final windowing ----into the ocean2.Combined windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing ---out of the airplane through the aira+c: intial and final widowing ---out of the airplane into the oceanb+c: medial and fianl windowing ---through the air into the oceana+b+c: maximal windowing over ---out of the plane through the air the whole PATH into the oceanClosed path 封封闭路径路径I need the milk. 我想喝牛奶我想喝牛奶 。

---1.Single windows: 单一视窗a: intial windowing --- *Go.b: medial windowing ---- Get it out of the refrigerator.c: final windowing ---- Bring it here.2.Combined windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing --- Go get it out of the refrigerator.a+c: intial and final widowing ---Go bring it here.b+c: medial and fianl windowing --- Get it out of the refrigerator and bring it here.a+b+c: maximal windowing over --- Go get it out of the refrigerator and bring the whole PATH it here. Fictive path 虚拟路径虚拟路径Where is your bike? 你的自行你的自行车在哪？在哪？ ---1.Single windows: 单一视窗a: intial windowing --- It is across from the bakery.b: medial windowing --- It is across the street.c: final windowing --- *It is leaning against the lampost across.2.Combined windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing --- It is across the street from the bakery.a+c: intial and final widowing ---It is leaning against the lampost across from the bakery.b+c: medial and fianl windowing ---It is leaning against the lampost across the street.a+b+c: maximal windowing over --- It is leaning against the lampost across. the whole PATH the street from the bakery.  "Real" path with maximal windowing: intial window medial window final windowGo from the bakery across the street to the lamppost bakery street lamppostFictive path with maximal windowing: It is leaning against the lamppost across the street from the bakeryCausal-chain windowing 致使致使链视窗窗Traditional notion of causation: A simple yes-no categoryeg. non causative (die,fall ) causative (kill drop)However:Talmy argued in 1976 that different degrees of caussation exist: event-causation事件致使：The vase broke.author-causation人为致使: He broke the vase by mistake.agent-causation施事致使: He broke the vase to irritate his wife.Talmy claimed that many events involving causation should be treated as a complex sequences of more elementary stages and subevents.eg.John broke the window (with a stone).1. The agent decides that he's going to break the window.2. He bends hid knees, moves his hand to ground to grasp a stonr, straightens up and lifts the stone with his hand, swing his arm while holding the stone in his hand, and releases the stone from his hand thus propelling it forward.3.The stone sails through the air.4.The stone forcefully makes contact with window.5.The window breaks.Each subevent is linked to the next by a causal relation, and this motivates Talmy's term "causal-chain event". It is possible to deduce from this example the components of causal-chain event-frame.Stages of causal event-frame Eg.John broke the window with a stone.1.Agent intends to act1.The agent makes his mind that he is going to break the windows.2.Agent sets parts of his body or his whole body in motion and thereby intiates the causative event.2.He bends hid knees, moves his hand to ground to grasp a stonr, straightens up and lifts the stone with his hand, swing his arm while holding the stone in his hand, and releases the stone from his hand thus propelling it forward.3.Intermediate subevents which are causally related to each other (optional)3.The stone sails through the air.4. Penultimate sunevent= immediate cause of final result4.The stone forcefully makes contact with window.5.Final resulting sunevent= agent's intended goal5.The window breaks.In this section frames were approached from a universalist-cognitive point of view, from which event-frames seem to be shared by speakers of all languages.这一节中，框架是从普遍认知观的角度来理解的，这种观点人为，事件框架是为所有语言的说话人所共有的。

5.3 Language-specific framing and its use in narritive textsFIGURE 主体主体MOTION位移位移MANNERPATH 路径路径GROUND 背景背景 Bleriotflewacrossthe ChannelThe FIGURE in the English sentence is rendered as the subject (Bleriot); The PATH and the GROUND are expressed as an adverbial consisting of the proposition across and the noun phrase the channel. Finally, the MOTION and MANNER components are incorporated in the meaning of the verb fly.a.b. Bleriotflewacrossthe ChannelFIGURE 主体主体MOTION位移位移MANNER方式方式PATH 路径路径GROUND 背景背景Bleriot Bleriottraversatraversedla manchethe channelen avion.by aeroplaneFIGURE 主体主体MOTION位移位移 PATH路径路径GROUND 背景背景MANNER方式方式Unlike the English sentence, in which the PATH is expressed by the preposition, the French version incorporates the PATH in the verb meaning. The MANNER is expressed in an adverbial construction which is added to the clause.Verb of motion in English, German, French and SpanishThe expression of the PATHThe Englsih and French version between fly across and traverse en avion is not an isolated example, but a general tendency. English expresses the PATH by a partical, French incorporates in the verb meaning.German runs parellel to English and Spanish parellel to French. E. The boy went out of the yard.G. Der Junge ging aus dem hof hinaus. The boy went from the yard out.Fr. Le garcon sortit de la cour. The boy exited from the yard.Sp. El chico salio del patio. The boy exited from the yard.The pattern in this table confirms that while French and Spanish motion verbs refer to both MOTION and PATH, the Englsih and German verbs express only motion while the PATH is rendered by a particle.French SpanishEnglishGermanentrerentrargo in(enter)hineingehensortirsalirgo out(exit)hinausgehenascendresubir(ascender)go up(ascend)hinaufgehendescendrebajar(descender)go down(descend)hinuntergehentraversertraspasargo over(cross, traverse)hinubergehenThe expression of MANNER in the description of motion events in the four languages.E. The boy rode out of the yard.G. Der Junge ritt aus dem hof hinaus. The boy rode from the yard out.Fr. Le garcon sortit a cheval de la cour.The boy exited on horse from the yard.Sp. El chico salio a caballo del patio. The boy exited on horse from the yard. In English and German the MANNER of the movement is incorporated in the verb, while in French and Spanish the MANNER is added as a seperate adverbial.The table shows that where English verb-particle constructions and German complex verbs express MOTION plus MANNER and PATH, the French and Spanish counterparts become quite elaborate if both elements are to be rendered. Verb-framed languages vs Statellite languagesThe languages which are expressed the framing function of PATH through the verb can be called verb-framed languages, as in French entrer and Spanish entrar. 路径框架功能是通过动词表达的语言叫做动词框架语言。

The languages which are expressed the framing function of PATH through a particle( go into in Englsih) or a verbal particle (hineringehen in German) can be called satellite-framed languages.路径框架功能是通过小品词或动词性小品词表达的语言叫做卫星框架语言English：Satellite-framedThe boy rode out of the courtyard. satellite FIGURE MOTION PATH MANNER GROUND adverbial phrase/clause El chico salio montando caballo del patio.Spanish: verb-framedExpression of MANNER and MOTION:A comparative study of novelA verb-framed like Spanish often needs more linguistics material to express the MANNER of a motion event than a satellite-framed language such as Englsih.In order to supply the same quantity and specificity of information that is contained in English motion+manner verbs, Spanish speakers often need an elaborate paraphrase. Verbs like "bolt (奔逃), dart(飞奔)" are "unrenderable" in Spanish.Spanish tranlators omit manner information about half of the time ,whereas English translators actually add manner to the Spanish original in almost a quarter of their translations. (slobin 1996:212)Omit manner information in Englsih to Spanish.Add manner to the original in Spanish to Englsih.Expression of PATH in Englsih and Spanish stories and novels据Berman和Slobin对同样一个图片故事(Frog, where are you?)用英语和西班牙语各自60种叙述的运动事件统计，西班牙语叙述者用了27种动词，而英语叙述者用了47种动词，如加上短语动词(phrasal verb)，动词种类达到123种。

英语叙述者大量使用包括短语动词在内的v+ satellites 形式，比如:come +after, down, off, on, out, over, up...;go+down, down out, home, in, off, out, outside, over, throughIt is fairly clear that in the English stories descriptions of PATH are mainly achieved through satellites.However, the Spanish speakers appear to be much more reluctant to use them than English speakers.Two more examples:A satellite-framed language such as English is better suited for description of MANNER and elaborate PATH descriptions including dynamic descriptions of locating along the PATH.A verb-framed language such as Spanish may opt for fewer MANNER and PATH details in favour of a more vivid MOTION description.5.4 Construction Grammar The pencil blew off the table."moving caused by blowing"The draught blew off the table.Motion event-frame Causal-chain event-frame(The pencil is blow off the table. ) ( The motion is caused by the draught.) CAUSED-MOTION EVENT -FRAME 致使位移事件框架致使位移事件框架 There seems to be a close correspondence between certain conceptual structure (frame structure) derived from everyday experience and syntactic structures apparently generated on the spur of the moment.源自日常经验的特定概念结构(框架结构)与明显的即兴生成的句法结构之间似乎存在紧密的对应关系。

I ...shoved them into a corner.I brought her out of hospital.They kicked him into the ground. We can always put a pillow over her head. caused-motion event-frame agent-subjectsEvidence collected by linguistics working in the framework of Construction Grammar suggests that constructions may in fact not be generated as we go alone but stored in long term memory just like frames.构式不是随时生成的，是储存于长期记忆的The construction carries a meaning of its own. Construction is pairing of form and meaning or pairing of form and functions。

构式有自身意义构式是"形式与意义的结合体"或"形式与功能的结合体"构式，无论简单和复杂，都有自己独立的形式、语义或功能let alone, all of a sudden,by and large,blue collar,white elephant汉语中的“蓝领”“木马”“伤风”构式不仅限于词汇层面, 也同样存在于句法层面例如英语中的“V TIME away”结构 “Jane slept the whole trip away.” “Elizabeth knitted the whole week away.” “She danced the night away.”“sleep a trip ”是什么意思? 我们只有在比较了多个类似的例子以后, 才能知道它们共同的意义, 亦即构式的意义: “从事特定的行为从而度过或浪费了一段特定的时间”Argument-structure constructionsThe caused-motion construction is one of the major argument-structure constructions(i.e. constructions in which verbs are linked with their obligatory complements or aruguments).The other two major constructions discussed by Golberg(1995)are the cause-receive construction (ditranstive) and the resultative (cause-become).致使-位移构式是主要的论元结构构式，其他两种是致使-接受构式（双及物）和结果构式（致使-成为）。

Caused-motion construction:Frank sneezed the tissue off the table.Caused-receive construction:Joe gave Sally a picture.Cause-become construction:Terry wipe the table clean.Constructions are polysemous:构式是多构式是多义的的Complex sentence construction复杂句构式复杂句构式Shell-content construction is represented by a combination of abstract noun and dependent clause or infinite; the dependent clause is either directly attached to the nominalThe fact that a conference is taking place in encouraging.The chance to find a cheap hotel is small.or linked to it by the copula BE.The problem is that hotels don't offer cheap rates.The aim is to open student hostels for guests.外壳-内容构式Cognitive-pragmatic function:1. Reification:turning something into a thing2. Perspectivization: as a fact, aim, goal,etcIn this process the abstract noun serves as a kind of container or "shell" for the information contained in the dependent clause and is therefore called "shell noun".Two more example caused questionsIn other words, one has to posit a special meaning of the construction that cannot be derived from its constituents. This property of non-derivablity or non-compositionality seems to be an essential attribute of construction.It is also something that moves constructions in the direction of linguistics phenomena that have traditionally been regarded as idioms.Idioms as constructions-constructions as idiomsThe notion of dioms mainly from two angels:1.Lexicological angel:meaning cannot be predicted bite the dust(to die) 2.Syntactc angel:structural exceptions The bigger they come the higher the fall. Why not fix it yourself? Him be a doctor. Your brother help me.However, Fillmore .Kay and O'Connor regard them as "syntactic patterns dedicated to sematic and pragmatic purpose not knowable from their form alone".“不可只从其形式知道其专门语义和语用目的的句法形式。

While formal idioms like let alone are syntactically and semantically irregular, they still seem to be productive, in the sense that they serve as syntactic models for new sentences.Him be a doctor.X is going to/wants to be a doctor.Therefore,these idioms can be regarded as fairly representative examples of construction.Thank you!。