语言学第三章.ppt

Lexicon/lexicologylThe benefits brought about by the study of lexiconlA. Make better use of Modern DictionarieslB. Have better methods to remember new words and phrasesl1. Alphabetical Table of Hard Words in 1604l one-word definitionl2. Modern dictionary by DR. Samuel Johnson in 1755lAll important words/ good meanings/ examplesl3. Oxford English Dictionary lWord history---etymology, study of the origin of words, study of the historical development of words lLDOCE— Longman Dictionary of Contemporary EnglishlOALD-- Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current EnglishlCDOEL---Collin Dictionary of the English LanguagelDAI----A Dictionary of American IdiomslLongman Dictionary of English CollocationslThe Oxford Study ThesaurusWhat information about a word is covered in the dictionary?lCommand of a word: lpronunciation, lspelling, lword class, lmeaning in the context, lcollocation, lits relations with other words in the word family,lsynonyms and antonyms, etc.le.g. lAlert lEtymology lFrench alertelfromItalian all' erta[ on the lookout ]lalla[ to the, on the ]lAlert l adj.lVigilantly attentive; watchful:l警觉的，警惕的；注意的：lalert to danger; an alert bank guard.l警惕危险；警觉的银行保安人员lSee: awarelMentally responsive and perceptive; quick.l 思维敏捷的思维反应迅速且感觉灵敏的；快速敏捷的lBrisk or lively in action:l 活泼的行动轻快或有活力的：lthe bird's alert hopping from branch to branch.l小鸟在树枝间欢快地跳跃lalertl n.lA signal that warns of attack or danger:l 警报警告进攻或危险的信号：lSirens sounded the alert for an air raid.l空袭警报的警笛响起lSee: alarmlA condition or period of heightened watchfulness or preparation for action:l 警戒状态高度警惕或准备随时行动的状态或阶段：lNuclear-armed bombers were put on alert during the crisis.l核武装轰炸机在危机期间负责警戒lalertl lv.tr.l a.lert.ed; a.lert.ing; a.lerts;lTo notify of approaching danger or action; warn:l 向…报警对临近的危险或行动发出通知；警告：la flashing red light that alerted motorists to trouble ahead.l闪烁的红灯警告摩托车手前面有危险lon the alertlWatchful and prepared for danger, emergency, or opportunity:l 警戒着，防备着注意着且防备着危险、意外或机会：lbird watchers on the alert for a rare species.l看守者人密切注意稀有鸟类Alert lTaking notes is one of the best ways to stay alert in lectures.lThe authorities should have been alert to the possibility of invasion.lWe need to alert staff to the crisis facing the company.lBe on the alert for anyone acting suspiciously.lRed-alertlAlertly / alertnesslSlow to / obtuselQuick-wittedl Methods used to remember a wordlRestore vt. Bring back to a former conditionlArrange v. prepare to planlFlee v. ran away fromlGym n. a place where people do physical exercise or build their bodylSet apart v.lInterview n.v.lIntolerable a. too bad to be endured.Methods used to remember a wordl----lTo restore balance to my life, I force myself back into the real world. I call people, arrange to meet with the few remaining friends who haven’t fled New York City. I try to at least get to the gym, so as to set apart the weekend from the rest of my week. I arrange interviews for stories, doctor’s appointments---anything to get me out of the house and connected with others.lBut sometimes being face is too much. I see a friend and her ringing laughter is intolerable---the noise of conversation in the restaurant, unbearable. I make my excuses and flee. I re-enter my apartment and run to the computer as though it were a place of safety.lCommand of a word:l pronunciation, lspelling,l word classlmeaning in the context, lcollocation,lits relations with other words in the word family, synonyms and antonyms, etc.lLearning objectives:l1. the definition of word l2. the formation of word ( The form)l3. Word meaning P. 55 l1. What is word?l Hard to define scientifically.l Three senses of Wordl lThe smallest significant unit of speech.l by AristotlelNot valid in contemporary linguistic theory.lMorphemelBloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms.lAccording to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form.l1. Basic terms in Lexicon l vocabulary 词汇/ word 词/ lexical item词项l e.g. check, checks, checked, checkinglVocabulary refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language.lWord as a general term and as a specific term. P.56lA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item.l lmorpheme p. 61l free morpheme( lexical free morpheme/ functional free morpheme)l functional morpheme( derivational morpheme/ flectional morpheme)l2. identification of wordsl3. classification of wordsl2. word formation P. 65 P.73l affixationl compounding/compositionl conversionl blending: smog, motell backformation: editorl shortening / abbreviation: ad. Memo.l ( clipped words /initialisms /acronym)affixationl1. a-in the state of / in the process of lE.g. New York City, already aclutter with candidates for mayor, got one with a difference last week.l ---the corridor outside the Congressman’s office was asquish with trod-upon fruit.l2. non—notl nonmusician/ nondegradable/ noncommitted / noninvolved/ l new meaning—not important / no value / false l Nonbook/ nonfriend / nonhero/ nonovellE.g The debate on the subject---was the usual non-debate.l3. –itis a disease 炎症l arthritis / bronchitis l --be addicted tol golfitis / vacationitis / interviewitisl l from Modern English Lexicology by LU Guoqianglpel 的词源学意思为"逐,推".以下的17个单词就是由其加前缀或后缀而构成的!lcompel “逐之做某事” 强迫,迫使l com- =加强compellable 可强迫的 -able=be able to 可……的lcompeller 强迫他人者,驱使别人者l -er =people who 者dispel 驱散 dis- =apart 分散,散开lexpel 逐出,赶出,开除 ex - = out 出,外expellable 可逐出的 expellant 驱除的,赶出的 l-ant = …… 的 expeller 逐出者,驱逐者 expellee 被驱逐(出国)者 –lee=被……的人 (eg.employer---employer)impel l推动,激励 lim-=intensify 加强 limpeller 推动者,推动器propel 推进,推动l pro-=before 向前propeller 推进器,螺旋桨,推进者propel lent 推进的,推进物,推进者 -ent= n/adj.suffix lJimmy 很宅？lJimmy is a very indoorsy person because he hates camping.l"What better than playing games and enjoying the luxury of your house ?" says an indoorsman.l“Sean, an avid indoorsman, is highly regarded for his skill at video games and computer programming."compoundinglSyntactic switch to frontal positionlE.g. round-the-clock discussionl the ahead-of-schedule general election (adverbial modifier)l a break-in period l a walk-on appearance ( verbal phrase) l take-home payl a keep-fit class (to-infinitive)l weather modification ideascompoundinglE.g.l白领为提升软实力下血本lWhite Collars jostle to increase soft power at any cost .l20 世纪 90 年代初，哈佛大学教授约瑟夫•奈首创“软实力”（Soft Power）概念，于此相对的就是“硬实力”（约等于下文的“硬指标”）。

根据词汇应用的原则，词汇的用法经常是可以类推的，所以下文的“软技能”就是soft skills，当然类推也要遵循目的语语言习惯，最好是多查资料，以免造成不必要的错误l关于soft skills的解释，网上可以查到：Soft skills is a sociological term relating to a person's "EQ" (Emotional Intelligence Quotient), the cluster of personality traits, social graces, communication, language, personal habits, friendliness, and optimism that characterize relationships with other people.l3. Lexical change P. 79llexical change proper P.72lMorpho-syntactical change P.77lSemantic change P.78lPhonological change P.80lOrthographic change P.82l1. broadening： thing, propositionl2. narrowing : deer, gearl3. meaning shift: beadl4. class shift : stump, hoglGunnar’s case was brought before the September meeting of the Thing with old Njal sitting in the judgment seat.lThing : A political or judicial assemblylProposition: proposal ---any thinglEg. A difficult proposition,l a paying propositionl5. elevation: 词义的升格lMarshall: lPerson who raises horses----general lExecutive: lAn ordinary person who do something that has been carefully planned---manager in an organization or company who helps make important decisionslCraftsman, shrewd, nimble, chiffon l6. degradation/ degeneration 词义的降格lVillain, boor, churl:lFarm-hand-----a bad person or criminal (ignorant, rude, foolish)lGenteel:lfrom or relating to a good social class---quiet and polite, often in an exaggerated way; from, or pretending to be from, a high social class (装绅士派头的，假斯文的）used, except by the ignorant, in mockery.lCunning, gaudy, gossip Lexicon & Lexicologyn nThe dynamic and static study of the form and The dynamic and static study of the form and meaning of words.meaning of words.n nForm:Form:n nStatic researchStatic research: : the three senses of wordthe three senses of word, the , the identification of words, identification of words, classification of wordsclassification of words, the , the formation of word, formation of word, sememesememe and morpheme, and morpheme, morpheme and phonememorpheme and phonemen nDynamic researchDynamic research: Lexical change, : Lexical change, morphomorpho- -syntactical changeP.77, phonological change P.81, syntactical changeP.77, phonological change P.81, orthographic change P.82orthographic change P.82n nMeaning:n nDynamic research: Semantic change P.78n nStatic research:n n Lexicon/lexicologyn n高等学校教材n n<现代英语词汇学>n n 陆国强 编著 上海外语教育出版社n nAn introduction to Modern English Lexicologyn n<现代英语词汇学概论>n n 张韵斐 主编 北京师范大学出版社<现代英语词汇学> 陆国强 编著 上海外语教育出版社l1: A general Survey of a wordl2: Morphological structure and Word-Formation l3. Motivation (理据)l4. Semantic Features l5. Change of Meaningl6. Semantic Classification of wordsl7. Association and collocation 联想与搭配l8.English Idiomsl9. American English 10. Application and comprehension (运用和理解）现代英语词汇学概论> 张韵斐 主编 北京师范大学出版社lPart Onel A general survey of English vocabularylPart TwolMorphological structure of English wordslA. MorphemeslB. Word-FormationlPart Threel1.Word meaning and semantic features 2.Polysemy and homonymyl3.Sense relations between words 4.Meaning and contextl5. changes in word meaninglPart Four lEnglish idiomslAmerican EnglishlEnglish dictionaries and how to use themlObjectives: l Discuss Lexical Meaning lTeaching Focus:l Meaning / The reference theory l Meaning of “Meaning”l Motivation of meaningl Components of meaning1. The Study of Meaning¡Semantics: the study of meaning¡英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意思是significant (有意义)。

是研究语言意义的科学¡Linguistic semantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular—The meaning of words: Lexical semantics—The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, compositional meaning—The meaning of utterances: Pragmatics¡Meaning has always been a central topic in human scholarship. ¡Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists, e.g. Plato & Aristotle.¡Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.¡The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. The meaning of MEANING¡The word “meaning” has different meanings.¡C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. ¡1. John means to write.¡2. A green light means to go.¡3. Health means everything.¡4. His look was full of meaning.¡5. What is the meaning of life?¡6. What does ‘cornea’ mean?¡The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.¡Lexical meaning ? 1.What’s word meaning?¡ Sign ¡dog (linguistic form) /dŊg/ (phonological form): ¡a common animal with four legs, fur, and a tail. Dogs are kept as pets or trained to guard places, find drugs etc¡Word meaning can be defined a reciprocal relation between name and the thing it represents.(词的意义是名称与事物的联系）¡Meaning is what the form stands for.¡E.g. Desk is something you sit at and you do your work.¡What is reference? (所指关系）¡It is the relationship between language and the world.¡ dog 狗¡ referent ¡By means of reference, the speaker indicates which thing in this world (including persons) are being talked about. It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for. The reference theory (所指理论）The naming theory¡P.107¡The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.¡According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, does the sign become meaningful.¡The limitations of this theory are obvious. Can you identify them?¡P. 107¡Not every word has a reference. ¡Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. ¡Words like Santa Claus , God, ghost , fairy, demon and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. ¡Abstract words like sincerity, love don’t have a concrete referent in the world.  The semantic triangle 语义三角¡Words→Concepts→Things: Ogden & Richardsthought/concept/sensesymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word) stands for (object)¡What is concept?¡It is the general idea and meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a person’s mind.What’s the relationship between meaning and concept?¡They are closely connected but not identical.¡They are both related directly to referent and are notions of words but belong to different categories.¡Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.¡But meaning belongs to language, so it is restricted to language use. So it is restricted to language use. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.Horsesteed Sense and reference 涵义与指称¡Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has.¡The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs, at which one reads and writes¡Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk.¡Reference: the concrete entities a particular desk in the world.¡Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference.(每个词都有语义，但不一定都有所指）。

¡Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning¡ Seven types of meaning:—Conceptual meaning—Connotative meaning—Social meaning—Affective meaning—Reflected meaning—Collocative meaning—Thematic meaningAssociativeMeaning(1) Conceptual meaning¡Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.—Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.—Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.Denotative meaning¡Woman: human, female, adult¡Pig: animal, domesticated, having a long broad snout, having a thick, fat body covered with coarse bristles(2) Connotative meaning¡The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.—A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.¡Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.—Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.¡Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.Connotative meaning¡Woman: frail, prone to tears, emotional, inconstant, gentle, compassionate, hard-working¡Tom is a pig.¡That fellow is a tiger.¡Home, sweet home, there is no place like home.¡Famous/ notorious¡Statesman/politician¡Resolute/stubborn/obstinate¡They put up a stubborn resistance.(3) Social meaning¡What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.—Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.—Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.—Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.—Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.—Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.—Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.¡domicile: very formal, official¡residence: formal¡abode: poetic¡home: general¡steed: poetic¡horse: general¡nag: slang¡gee-gee: baby languageThe five clocks by Martin JoosFrozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateFormal <------------------------------> InformalStylistic meaning¡Formal/informal (colloquial, slang)¡Throw/ cast/ chuck¡They chucked a tone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.¡After casting a stone at the police, they escaped with the money.(4) Affective meaning¡Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.—You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!—I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or—Will you belt up.‘Colorful’ meaning¡Commendatory ¡tough-minded¡resolute, firm¡shrewd¡childlike¡wise man¡man of unusual talent¡portly, stout, solid, ¡slim¡slender, slim¡Derogatory ¡ruthless¡obstinate¡sly, crafty¡childish¡wise guy¡freak¡fleshy, fat, tubby¡lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy(5) Reflected meaning¡Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.—When you hear ‘click the mouse twice’, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.¡Many taboo terms are result of this.Reflected meaning¡Communication :Human language is a tool of social intercourse.¡Wash-room---water closet¡Your products are not quite up to standard. / Your products are of bad quality.¡You are welcome to the museum.(6) Collocative meaning¡The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.—pretty: girl, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.—handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.Collocative meaning¡Pretty ( girl, woman , flower, garden, color, village)¡Handsome( boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, ¡He mounted his gee-gee.¡He got on his steed.(7) Thematic meaning¡What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.—Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.—The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.—They stopped at the end of the corridor.—At the end of the corridor, they stopped.Thematic meaning¡My brother owns the largest restaurant in London.¡The largest restaurant in London is owned by my brother.¡The largest restaurant in London belongs to my brother.Meaning of Wordl1. Meanings of meaning （意义的意义） 2. The referential theory（指称论）& The semantic trianglel3. Sense relations 涵义关系 l4. Semantic Classification of words3. Sense relationslA. synonymylB. AntonymylC. Hyponymy Kinds of synonymslA. complete synonyms : l word-formation/ word-buildingl caecitis/typhlitislB. Relative synonymsl Differ in degreel anger/rage/fury/indignation/wrathlanger—the most general term, describes merely the emotional reaction, suggesting no definite degree of intensitylRage---implies a loss of self-control.lFuge—the strongest word in the group, suggesting a rage so violent that may approach madnesslIndignation---denotes anger based on a moral condemnation of sth. Felt to be wrong and unfair.lAbolitionists expressed her indignation at being unfairly dismissed.lWrath---limited in use to literature and figures of speech, suggesting a strong anger.lb. differ in stylistic meaningl Poor _____ (small/little ) boy!l Small has no affective meaning.l policeman/copl horse/steed/naglC. differ in collocation and distributionl sense/meaningl the word has two senses/meaningsl a man of senseA group of lA flock of/ a herd of/ a shoal of/ a swarm of/---la flock of sheeplA head of elephants/cowslA shoal of fishlA swarm of beesLiving / alivelHe is the greatest _____ scientist.lHe is the greatest scientist ____.lDiffer in originlThe richness of English in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin, French and native elements. So numerous native words exist side by side with the one borrowed words. In most cases the native words are more spontaneous, more informal and unpretentious, whereas the foreign words are learned, abstract or even abstruse.Native latinlBodily corporeallFriendship amitylHearty cordiallHelp aidlHide conceallInner interiorlSharp acutelTire fatigueNative French LatinlAsk question interrogatelFast firm securelFear terror trepidationlRise mount ascendlTime age epochl more bookishAppropriate use of synonymsl----As yet I had spoken to no one, nor did anybody seem to take notice of me; I stood lonely enough, but to that feeling of isolation I was accustomed---”Exercise (reject/refuse/decline)l1. John ______my suggestions.l2. The doctor_____ to give me permission to leave the hospital.l3. She ________ their invitation to a dinner party.l4. A blind man smilingly ____ to be helped across the street.l4.Tom was ___ for the army because of his poor health.l1. declined or rejectedl2. refusedl3. declinedl4. declinedl5. rejectedAntonymylThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.lWords that are opposite are antonyms.HyponymylHyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and heneral lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.l foodl meat vegetable fruitlBeef/pork spinach/cabbage apple/orange l1. Basic termsl2. Word formationl3. Semantic Changel 3.1 Referential theoryl 3.2 Meanings of meaningl 3.3 Sense relationsl 3.4 Motivation4. MotivationlHow a word has a certain meaning? lReferential theory—a mental associationlA. conceptual meaning/ literal meaning lB. figurative meaningl lThe bonnet of a carlA coat of paintlPotatoes cooked in their jacketslTown and gown (市民和大学师生)lThe meanings are motivated by the similarity between the garments and the objects referred to.lP. 287 / (new) P. 213l George P. Lakoff l an American cognitivel linguist and professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1972. l1. similel2. metaphorl3. metonymy/synecdochel4. personificationl5.irony/oxymoron/understatement/l hyperbolel1. simile P. 286l2. metaphor e.g.Head: the part of the body the highest part of the body being in charge of the whole bodyMetaphor: the head of valley the head of a nail the head of a large corporation the head of a flower the head of a school the head of a river the head of a tape recorder the head of construction lHot: high temperature la hot competitor/performerlThis painting is too hot to handle. 这幅画不好销赃. lPepper and mustard are hot. 胡椒和芥末都是辣的 lhave a hot temper lhot money lA slovenly/cunning/rapacious/capricious/ timid person:lA pig/ a fox/ a wolf/ a butterfly/ a mouselLaunder v.lLaunder + clothing l + money: transfer to foreign banks so as to disguise its illegal source.lPark + carl + babieslE.g: She couldn’t take the twins to work with her, so she parked them with the woman she was renting her room from.l3. metonymy: 转喻l It designates something by the name of something associated with it.lThe crown substituting for monarchylThe stage for the theatrelNo. 10 Downing Street for the British Prime MinisterlThe White House for the US PresidentlThe beach for judgelThe balcony for the people in the balcony of a theater4. SynecdochelIn rhetoric, a figure of speech concerned with parts and wholes.lTen sails can be seen rounding the buoy.lWe need some grey beards to help us out.l5. personification/ irony/oxymoron/understatement/hyperbolel冯翠华：English Rhetorical Optionsl黄任： English Rhetorical & Writingl1.1 Onomatapoeic motivation ( 拟声理据）：defining the motivation by soundlA. The naturalism ( and intrinsic connection between sound and sense)lB: The Conventionalism ( a matter of tradition and convention)lBuzz, crack, roar, squeak l(breath-noise): sniff, snuff, snore, snortl(quick separation or movement): snip, snap, snatchl(creeping): snake, snail, snoopl1.2. semantic motivation(语义理据）(based on semantic factors/ a kind of mental association)lThe bonnet of a carlA coat of paintlPotatoes cooked in their jackets lTown and gown lA. metaphorlImplied comparisonlHe has a heart of stone.lThe curtain of night has fallen.lThe tower of strength will forge ahead.lThe storm of protest was nipped in the bud.2. Metonymy 借代lName something by one of its attributes.lThe kettles boils.lHe succeeded to the crown.3. Synecdoche 提喻lUsing a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.lBread for foodlThe army for a soldierlCopper for penny4. analogylWords are created in imitation of other words.l(black list) White list, gray list l(first family) First ladylMissile gap---production gap, development gap, generation gap1.3 Motivation and cultural backgroundlCulturally-bound words or allusive wordslquixotic : from Don Quixote, the hero of a great book by Cervantes, meaning extravagantly chivalrous or romantically idealistic.lFaustian spirit: heaven-storming, adventurous thirst for the infinite 1.4 Loss of MotivationlResult : jump backlPupil: scholarlPupil: circular opening in the centre of the iris of the eye that regulates the amount of light passing to the retina by becoming larger or smaller 1. A general survey of English vocabularyl3.1 What’s word?lIt is hard to define “word” in the scientific sense because it is difficult to state the criteria by which a word can be defined.l1. Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive (instictive) recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.lE.g. It is wonderful.l It’s wonderful.l (its wonderful)l(Liaison and contracted form)The definition of wordl2. “A word is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms, in brief, a word is a minimum free form. ---” by BloomfieldlThe definition holds good and can be easily applied to most cases.lThere are some exceptions; not all words can occur in isolation, the, a, my, etc.lMorpheme p. 84lBound forms (morphemes)lFree forms (morphemes)lThe morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms.lMorphe (form) + -emelThe smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature of some class of things. Morphemel1.Nationl2. Nationall3. Nation+al+izel4. De+nation+al+izel5. De+nation+al+iz+ationl3. “A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable of a given grammatical use.” by Antoine MeilletlA combination of meaning and sound with special emphasis on grammatical use.lDo not include the concept of word as the minimal free form.lHowever both definitions, taken together, give the main criteria of a word, that is sound, meaning and syntactic function.lA word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.lThe young man left quietly.lA. Sound or sound sequence to denote different meaninglB. A different word-classlc. A different syntactic function in the sentence2. Three senses of “words” P.76lA. a physically definable unitlB. the common factor underlying a set of formslC. a grammatical unit3. Identification of wordslA. stabilitylB. relative uninterruptibilitylC. a minimum free form P.794. Classification of wordsl1. variable and invariable wordsl2. grammatical words and lexical wordsl3. closed-class words and open-class words.l4. word classl1. particlesl2. auxiliariesl3. pro-forml4. determiners2. Morphological structure of English wordsl3.2 The formation of word P.88l1. compound p.89l2. derivation p.91l3. conversionl4. back-formation p.100l5. abbreviation (shortening) p.98l clipped words / Initialisms / acronymsl6. Blending p.971. compound p.89lChain-drain:l“---leave all that out and remember only that Hugh Hefner is a man who chain-drinks Pspsis.”lDrink a beverage continuouslylWe’d like to window-shop this afternoon.l(look at displays of goods in store windows without entering the stores to buy anything.)lHe sweet-talked her into not being so sore. lCoax by flattery.2. derivation p.91lGrammatical affixeslSemantic affixesWord formationlSymptom: sym /syl, syn, sys—Greekl same, with, togetherlPtom—falllSympathetic ( feeling)---describing feeling withlSystem ( to stand) standing together lSynthetic ( to put ) describing putting togetherGuess the meaning of these wordsl1.Symphonic (sound together)l2. Symphony n.l3. Symmetry (measurement) the quality of having the same measurementl4. Asymmetic adj.l5. Synergy ( to work) the act of working together.Coard-L card—Gr: heartlAccord (toward the heart together)lConcord ( with hearts together)lCordial ( with heart)lCordiality : the quality of doing with heartlDiscord: away from the heartlDiscordant: away from the heartlRecord: the act of bringing back to the heart2.3. conversionlUsing a form that represents one part of speech as another part of speech without changing the form of the word.lIn effect, a zero affix is added.lAlert a. /n/ v.lClean adj./v. lBridge n./v.4. back-formation p.1005. abbreviation (shortening) p.98lclipped words: 截断词lAcronyms 首字母缩略词6. Blending p.97现代英语词汇学概论> 张韵斐 主编 北京师范大学出版社lPart Onel A general survey of English vocabularylPart TwolMorphological structure of English wordslA. MorphemeslB. Word-FormationlPart Threel1.Word meaning and semantic features 2.Polysemy and homonymyl3.Sense relations between words 4.Meaning and contextl5. changes in word meaning 3.Sense relations between wordslWords may be classified according to the relationships between their senses. There are three types of semantic relations: similarity( synonymy), oppositeness( antonymy)lInclusion( hyponymy)lTraditionally synonyms are defined as words differing in sound form but identical or similar in meaning.lA. There are more polysemic words than monosemic words, and it is inconceivable that a polysemic word could have the same synonymous word for all its meanings.lB. It seems impossible to speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning of a word as a whole, as it is only the denotative meaning that may be said to be identicla or similar.SynonymlA word having the same meaning as another word: as one of two or more words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use.Kinds of synonymslA. complete synonyms : l word-formation/ word-buildingl caecitis/typhlitislB. Relative synonymsl Differ in degreel anger/rage/fury/indignation/wrathlanger—the most general term, describes merely the emotional reaction, suggesting no definite degree of intensitylRage---implies a loss of self-control.lFuge—the strongest word in the group, suggesting a rage so violent that may approach madnesslIndignation---denotes anger based on a moral condemnation of sth. Felt to be wrong and unfair.lAbolitionists expressed her indignaiton at being unfairly dismissed.lWrath---limited in use to literature and figures of speech, suggesting a strong anger.lb. differ in stylistic meaningl Poor _____ (small/little ) boy!l Small has no affective meaning.l policeman/copl horse/steed/naglC. differ in collocation and distributionl sense/meaningl the word has tow senses/meaningsl a man of senseA group of lA flock of/ a herd of/ a shoal of/ a swarm of/---la flock of sheeplA head of elephants/cowslA shoal of fishlA swarm of beesLiving / alivelHe is the greatest _____ scientist.lHe is the greatest scientist ____.lDiffer in originlThe richness of English in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Lating, French and native elements. So numerous native words exist side by side with the one borrowed words. In most cases the native words are more spontaneous, more informal and unpretentious, whereas the foreign words are learned, abstract or even abstruse.Native latinlBodily corporeallFriendship amitylHearty cordiallHelp aidlHide conceallInner interiorlSharp acutelTire fatigueNative French LatinlAsk quesiton interrogatelFast firm securelFear terror trepidationlRise mount ascendlTime age epochl more bookishAppropriate use of synonymsl----As yet I had spoken to no one, nor did anybody seem to take notice of me; I stood lonely enough, but to that feeling of isolation I was accustomed---”Exercise (reject/refuse/decline)l1. John ______my suggestions.l2. The doctor_____ to give me permission to leave the hospital.l3. She ________ their invitation to a dinner party.l4. A blind man smilingly ____ to be helped across the street.l4.Tom was ___ for the army because of his poor health.l1. declined or rejectedl2. refusedl3. declinedl4. declinedl5. rejectedAntonymylThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.lWords that are opposite are antonyms.HyponymylHyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and heneral lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.l foodl meat vegetable fruitlBeef/pork spinach/cabbage apple/orange changes in word meaning l3.3.4 semantic change P.107lA. broadening (generalization/extension)lB. narrowinglC. meaning shiftlD. class shiftlFolk etymologylA. broadening (generalization/extension)lGunnar’s case was brought before the September meeting of the Thing with old Njal sitting in the judgment seat----.lThing : a political or judicial assembly.lThing : a word of all work matter, affairsl before nowlBribery leftovers corruption lEconomy home managing /financial affairslHolidays Christmas, etc. Any holidayslB. narrowing (specialization)l before nowlPill a general category of small medicinal ball / birth control pilllFowl any kind of bird / domestic birds lC. ElevationlWhen the meaning narrows toward a more favorable meaning, it is called elevation.lNaughty: wicked or depraved → means only mild mischieflMischief: wicked behavior → merely apply to a naughty childlShrewd: depraved or wicked → somewhat complimentarylPraise: set a value on sth good or bad → something goodlFame : report → good reputationlSuccess: result, outcome → a favorable or satisfactory outcome or resultl4. degenerationlWhen the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning it is called degeneration. lVillain: a man worked on a farm or villa → a term of reproach: a man having a low sense of morality。