unit1writingparagraph课堂PPT.ppt

Paragraph Writing9/11/20241Basic Skills in Writing ParagraphsIntroduction to ParagraphsParagraph Developing TechniquesQualities of a Good Paragraph9/11/20242Introduction to ParagraphsDefinitionStructure9/11/20243DefinitionA paragraph is a group of related sentences developing one idea or expressing one unit of thought (topic of paragraph). It is the basic unit of organization in writing. 9/11/20244Structure Topic Sentence Supporting Sentences Concluding Sentence9/11/20245Textbook P1-2Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous 有光泽的beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian 马其顿的coin remains as untarnished未失去光泽的today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold–plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its utility.9/11/20246Topic SentenceDefinition and Function Position Writing a Good Topic Sentence9/11/20247Definition and Function-1A topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. It not only names the topic (who, what) of the paragraph, but also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling idea. 9/11/20248Definition and Function-2The controlling idea is usually indicated by a single word or a phrase in the topic sentence. A controlling idea helps a writer by reminding him or her at all times to keep to the central idea as he or she writes a paragraph. e.g.9/11/20249Example-1Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. Topic: gold Controlling idea: two important characteristics9/11/202410In the supporting sentences, two characteristics are introduced. First of all, gold has a lustrous 有光泽的beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.9/11/202411Example-2There are four seasons in a year.Topic : SeasonsControlling ideas: four kinds of seasons9/11/202412Example-3Industrialization has brought us many benefits as well as environmental tragedies.Topic : IndustrializationControlling ideas: benefits as well as environmental tragedies9/11/202413Example-4The students in the class come from many different parts of the world.Topic : The students in the classControlling ideas: from many different parts of the world.9/11/202414Position of a Topic Sentencea) At the beginning of a paragraphb) At the end of a paragraphc) In the middle of a paragraphd) At both the beginning and the end of a paragraphe) Sometimes it can be implied9/11/202415At the beginning of a paragraphAmericans make no distinction in greeting friends, acquaintances, elders, or superiors. When Americans see close friends, casual acquaintances, teachers, or even someone they know only by sight, they are likely to say “Hi” in all cases. This does not mean that they have no more regard for friends than for casual acquaintances. It only means that “ Hi” serves as a greeting for both.9/11/202416At the end of a paragraph Because lunch comes in the middle of the day, it gives me a welcome break from studying. At school, lunch means thirty minutes out of class and a chance to rest after the morning’s work. While eating, I can plan what I’m going to do in the afternoon. And besides offering a pleasant break in the day, lunch is always a good meal. In fact eating lunch is one of my favorite pastimes.9/11/202417In the middle of a paragraph Californians and new Englanders are both American. They speak the same language and abide by the same federal laws. But they are very different in their ways of life. Mobility—both physical and psychological — has made a great impression on the culture of Californians; lack of mobility is the mark of the customs and morality of New Englanders.9/11/202418At both the beginning and the end of a paragraphThe how of reading a newspaper in America is different from that of reading a newspaper in a totalitarian（极权主义的） country. In a democracy, first of all, you can check one newspaper against another; you can compare an account in your newspaper against what you hear on the radio. You can consult books to determine whether a report is accurate. In a totalitarian nation all information comes from one source － the government.9/11/202419The implied topic sentence Of those who drop out of college, some leave for financial reasons, and this is often tragic because these people in many cases do well in college before they have to leave. Some leave because of poor health. A few are drafted. Many leave for personal reasons－marriage, family mix-ups or just the realization that college is not the place for them.The implied topic sentence is:“Students leave college for a number of reasons.” 9/11/202420ExerciseUnderline the topic sentences, or add one to the paragraph (if a topic sentence does not appear but is implied.) 9/11/2024211. Americans might be embarrassed because their Japanese friends are so formal with them. Japanese might feel insulted because American acquaintances greet them casually. Still, the forms of greeting in both countries only show respect for others. It just happens that Americans and Japanese have a different way of looking at human relationships and thus have a different way of showing respect.9/11/2024221. Americans might be embarrassed because their Japanese friends are so formal with them. Japanese might feel insulted because American acquaintances greet them casually. Still, the forms of greeting in both countries only show respect for others. It just happens that Americans and Japanese have a different way of looking at human relationships and thus have a different way of showing respect.9/11/2024232. Baby-sitting with my little brother is no fun. Just as I settle down to watch television, he demands that I play with him. If I get a telephone call, he screams in the background or knocks something over. I always have to hang up to find out what’s wrong with him. He refused to let me eat a snack in peace. Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat. Then, when he finally grows tired, it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.9/11/2024242. Baby-sitting with my little brother is no fun. Just as I settle down to watch television, he demands that I play with him. If I get a telephone call, he screams in the background or knocks something over. I always have to hang up to find out what’s wrong with him. He refused to let me eat a snack in peace. Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat. Then, when he finally grows tired, it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.9/11/2024253. It is often said that lightning never strikes twice in the same place. But this is not rue. Go ask the forest rangers（护林员）. Rangers who spend their summers as fire fighters will tell you that every thunderstorm brings several bolts of lightning to their craggy（崎岖的）lookout station. Not only can lightning strike twice in the same place, but it is likely to. The familiar saying actually states the opposite of what really happens during an electrical storm.9/11/2024263. It is often said that lightning never strikes twice in the same place. But this is not rue. Go ask the forest rangers（护林员）. Rangers who spend their summers as fire fighters will tell you that every thunderstorm brings several bolts of lightning to their craggy（崎岖的）lookout station. Not only can lightning strike twice in the same place, but it is likely to. The familiar saying actually states the opposite of what really happens during an electrical storm.9/11/2024274. People who live in cities today think meat is something that comes wrapped in cellophane(玻璃纸)from the supermarket, potatoes come by the pound in plastic or paper bags, and feathers grow in hats. The city dwellers’ views are quite different from the views of their ancestors, who knew that meat is hunted down in the forest, potatoes are planted and weeded, and only birds can produce feathers. Yet, whether people today realize it or nor, they are still as dependent on animals and plants for their existence as their ancestors were.9/11/2024284. People who live in cities today think meat is something that comes wrapped in cellophane(玻璃纸)from the supermarket, potatoes come by the pound in plastic or paper bags, and feathers grow in hats. The city dwellers’ views are quite different from the views of their ancestors, who knew that meat is hunted down in the forest, potatoes are planted and weeded, and only birds can produce feathers. Yet, whether people today realize it or nor, they are still as dependent on animals and plants for their existence as their ancestors were.(Like their ancestors, people today still live on animals and plants.)9/11/2024295. Good manners are important in all countries, but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country. Americans say” Hi” when they meet, Japanese bow. Many American men open doors for women; Japanese men do not. On the surface, it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan, and in a way this is true. But in any country, the only manners that are important are those involving one person’s behavior toward another person. In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country.9/11/2024305. Good manners are important in all countries, but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country. Americans say” Hi” when they meet, Japanese bow. Many American men open doors for women; Japanese men do not. On the surface, it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan, and in a way this is true. But in any country, the only manners that are important are those involving one person’s behavior toward another person. In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country.9/11/202431Writing a Good Topic SentenceUsing direct statements.Avoiding using too general controlling ideas9/11/202432 Using Direct Statements-1 Can’t we see that the demand for delicacies（美食） has endangered some species almost becoming extinct? Bear’s paw, for example, has been enjoyed at least since Confucius time. Not only its smooth flavor is usually compared to that of the best ham, but many people have been overwhelmed by its healing power. Due to the excessive hunting, the population of black bears has9/11/202433Using Direct Statements-2reduced to fewer than 15,000 in Asia. Consumers and restaurants can no longer plead ignorance (声称不知声称不知) because the evidence is well documented. In conclusion, Chinese cuisine（烹饪） is rich and varied with hundreds of other dishes to please the palate（口味）; therefore, leave the endangered species alone and choose something else to eat.9/11/202434Using Direct Statements-3The demand for exotic delicacies has caused the reduction of population for endangered species through excessive hunting and overharvesting.Topic : The demand for exotic delicacies Controlling ideas: reduction of population for endangered species 9/11/202435Avoiding Using Too General Controlling Ideas-1(1) a. Modern technology is good and helpful to us. b. Modern technology has improved the quality of our lives immeasurably.9/11/202436Avoiding Using Too General Controlling Ideas-2(2) a. My brother enjoys water sports. b. Among the water sports that my brother enjoys are snorkeling (潜水), scuba diving（呼吸器跳水）, and water-skiing.9/11/202437Avoiding Using Too General Controlling Ideas-3(3) a. Star Wars and Close Encounters of a Third Kind are interesting movies. b. Star Wars and Close Encounters of a Third Kind are very different kinds of science fiction movies.9/11/202438Supporting SentencesSupporting sentences are used to further explain the controlling ideas of the essay. They develop the topic sentence by giving definitions, illustrations, reasons, examples, facts, statistics, , quotations, etc. (Examples)9/11/202439DefinitionA crowd is a gathering of many people in a place of limited size, such as in a hall, a supermarket or a town square. In a crowd, the movement of a person is restricted. He or she cannot move freely and may often have to take action to avoid collision（碰撞） with another person. Most of the time, a crowd can be unbearable, and I have an unpleasant experience with crowds. 9/11/202440Illustration-1The most glaring ill of modern cities is that the people in it are always in a hurry. Business people, wage-earners, laborers, peddlers, crooks（骗子）, and assorted（混杂的） characters all rush about in their activities. City folks rush to work, rush to get their work done, rush to have lunch, and rush home. Then perhaps they9/11/202441Illustration-2rush to have dinner or rush to party. Finally, in the early hours of morning, it is a rush too, as they say, grab some sleep before the rush next morning.9/11/202442Statistics-1Flooding always brings severe damages to Mississippi basin. The flooding in 1995 had caused the death of 12 people, destroyed nearly 3,000 homes, blew down thousands of fruit trees, and wiped out a good portion of the crops and poultry. The flooding altogether caused9/11/202443Statistics-2US$ 10.2 billion worth of damage, which reduced the Mississippi’s 1995 GDP by 0.05%. Therefore, the government should take immediate measures to prevent the disaster’s happening again.9/11/202444Concluding SentenceThe concluding sentence, the ending of a paragraph, should not be too long. The author should not add some new materials. Otherwise, the reader will feel that the essay has no ending. Three ways are generally used to write a concluding sentence.nSummationnRestatementnResolution9/11/202445Summation-1 In Taiwan, there are four seasons that are spring, summer, autumn, and winter. I like spring the most because it is a season of vitality. Trees grow new leaves, flowers bloom new buds, birds sing merrily, and men are energetic. Summer is the welcome season for students because of the long summer break. Autumn is the9/11/202446Summation-2season for harvest. All your hard works and efforts will be paid at this time. Winter is a holiday season because Christmas and New Year fall in this season. To conclude, spring, summer, autumn, and winter are the four seasons in a year, and I thank Mother Nature for Her wonderful creation.9/11/202447Restatement-1Smoking is hazardous to health. A regular smoker is always coughing or clearing his throat. The greater danger is that it may deteriorate into something worse such as lung cancer or other diseases. Also, it is an established fact that smokers are more prone to heart diseases and9/11/202448Restatement-2strokes. The smokers’ health is also generally poorer. My friends who smoke do not have enough stamina（精力）, as they say. All in all, smoking is harmful to your body.9/11/202449Resolution-1Many of us wish to accomplish several tasks at the same time. While we do not have the ability to do so, we must not try to do anything else till we bring one task to a successful end. This is because when we concentrate on doing one thing we may not concentrate on others. 9/11/202450Resolution-2Consequently, one’s aim at overachievement may end at achieving nothing. So, let us work while we work, play while we play, which is the way to be happy and gay.9/11/202451Paragraph Developing Techniques Planning a Paragraph --Writing an Outline --Narrowing down TopicPatterns of Paragraph Development9/11/202452Planning a Paragraph(1) First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). (2) Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. (3) Arrange them in a logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.(4) Write an outline if the paragraph.9/11/202453Writing an Outline Topic sentence: Stamp collecting is an interesting hobby. (1) There are beautiful pictures on postage stamps. (2) There are portraits of historical figures on them. (3) It is always a delight to get a stamp I have never seen before. (4) I can learn something by looking at the stamps I have collected.9/11/202454Narrowing down TopicMy House -living room --- your favorite desk --- the fireplace ---your bookcaseExample: P5-6 Samples1,2,39/11/202455Assignment-1Write a paragraph within 100 words by using the following topic sentences(1) There are four seasons in a year.(2) Industrialization has brought us many benefits as well as environmental tragedies.9/11/202456Assignment-2(3) The students in the class come from many different parts of the country.(4) The campus life is becoming more and more colorful.(5) Modern technology has improved the quality of our lives immeasurably.9/11/2024579/11/202458Ways of Developing Paragraphs Paragraph developmentTopic sentence (controlling idea)Supporting details (major & minor)Details (factual, example or illustration, descriptive)Orders (time, space, general-specific, specific-general, climax)Patterns (narration, process, definition, classification, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, analogy)9/11/202459Identification of details1.factual details: highly informative & persuasive (facts, events, statistics), for example:Having smoke detectors on guard in your home can save your life—it’s as simple as that. According to the U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission, over 75% of all home fire deaths take place while people are asleep. While smoke alarms will not extinguish(熄灭熄灭) fires, the alarm they send out will wake you up, increasing your chances of getting up, getting out and calling the fire department. If you are one of those people9/11/202460Continued who think fires happen only to “other people”, consider that more than 6,000 people who die and that over 300,000 people who are injured from fires each year who also thought it happened only to “others” before their fire occurred. Smoke detectors are simple to install and moderately (适度地适度地) priced. Properly placed, they will help to keep you out of the nation’s fire statistics.9/11/2024612. Descriptive detailsTo convey an impression—how something looked, smelled, tasted. For example:Few people know the basic facts about diamonds. They consist of pure crystallized (结晶结晶) carbon (元素元素) and are usually found in the form of crystals. They come in many shapes: some have eight faces; others have forty-eight. Diamonds are the hardest substance known, and for this reason acids do not affect them. They are, however, brittle (易碎易碎) and can be split. To polish diamonds one must use oil and diamond powder.9/11/2024623. Illustrations & ExamplesFor example:Diamonds have lured many people into trouble. The famous Nikolas Verden stole the Khybar stone from a shop in Amsterdam (荷兰首都荷兰首都), Holland, fled to Naples (那不勒斯那不勒斯,意意大利西南港口城市大利西南港口城市), and died trying to escape from the police. 9/11/202463Illustrations & ExamplesThomas Bright, a jewelry salesman, swallowed the Van Noos diamond in order to smuggle it out of South Africa and was arrested after it was found during an operation for appendicitis (阑阑尾炎尾炎).Five members of the Burton family died trying to hide the Courtney stone from the authorities.9/11/202464Orders of paragraph developmentEvery paragraph, long or short, consists of several sentences. Only when all the sentences are arranged in a reasonable order of development can a paragraph make sense. There are five major orders of arranging sentences in a paragraph, that is9/11/202465Orders1.order of time, 2.order of space, 3.general-specific order, 4.specific-general order, & 5.order of climax.9/11/2024661.Order of timeOne of the simplest ways which lends itself well to process description, narration & historical accounts.1) To explain a processTo build a wood fire that requires minimum tending, you need paper, cardboard, kindling (引引火柴火柴), a few small logs, and two or three large logs. First, you should wad up the paper into a tight ball or roll it into a cylinder (圆筒状圆筒状) and tie it into a loose knot (结结). Next, fold some of the cardboard over the paper. Then lay the kindling over it, … Then pile the remaining small logs ….Finally, light the paper. … 9/11/2024672).To narrateHe(the King) got up and stepped out of the stall, and just then he heard the sound of children’s voice. The barn door opened and a couple of little girls came in. As soon as they saw him their talking and laughing ceased, and they stopped and stood still, gazing him with strong curiosity; 9/11/202468To narratethey presently began to whisper together, then they approached nearer, and stopped again to gaze and whisper. By and by they gathered courage and began to discuss him aloud.9/11/2024692).To narrateIn the life the Indian there was only one inevitable duty-the duty of prayer-the daily recognition of the Unseen and Eternal. His daily devotions were more necessary to him than daily food. He wakes at daybreak, puts on his moccasins (软拖鞋软拖鞋) and steps down to the water’s edge. Here he throws handfuls of clear, cold water into his face, or plunges in bodily. 9/11/202470After the bath, facing the sun as it dances upon the horizon, and offers his unspoken orison. His mate may precede or follow him in his devotions, but never accompanies him. Each soul must meet the morning sun, the new sweet earth and the Great Silence alone.9/11/2024713). To relate a historical eventMike should not have taken that gymnastics course. In September, he fell off the uneven bars (高低杠高低杠) and got a concussion (脑震荡脑震荡). A month later he sprained his ankle, after a bad landing off the balance beam. In January, he broke his thumb when he caught it on the bas of the pommel horse (鞍马鞍马). He also broke the support beam in the basement (地下室地下室) of his parent’s home, showing them his skills when he was home for the December holidays.9/11/2024722.Order of space Details are arranged according to their location & their relationship to each other.Suitable to describe a limited interior, such as a classroom or the inside of submarine; also effective to write about a very broad area, such as the continent of Asia or the solar system.Following the order in which an observer’s eyes would travel around from left to right or from right to left.First, second, then, next, …; under, on across, by, …To avoid “transitions for transitions” sake9/11/202473Example We enjoyed our visit to Dr. Hassan’s house.The house was perched high up on a hill. First, we walked up the long driveway. Then we approached the huge bronze door. A butler was standing there. Then he ushered us and the other guests into the house. The first thing we passed was the oak-paneled (方格方格) library. Next we went by the formal dinning room. Finally we arrived at the ballroom where the reception was being held. There were three sparkling (闪烁闪烁) chandeliers (树枝型的吊灯树枝型的吊灯).More than a hundred people were enjoying champagne (香槟酒香槟酒), and good conversation. (artificial)9/11/202474Compare with the original oneWe enjoyed our visit to Dr. Hassan’s house, perched high up on a hill. Walking up the long driveway, we approached the huge bronze door. A butler was standing in the open doorway, ushering guests into the house. Going in, we passed the oak-paneled library and formal dinning room before we arrived at the ballroom, where the reception was being held. Under three sparkling chandeliers, more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne, and good conversation. (more natural)9/11/2024753. General-specific order (deductive)The general statement comes first, then followed by major supporting ideas or minor ones if necessary to reinforce the views expressed in the general statement.For example:The state is a rough-cut jewel-virtually all mountains. There are West Virginians who brag (吹牛吹牛) that if the state were flattened, she’d rival Texas in size. Countless times as I explored her reaches, I would pull to a9/11/202476Continued stop to catch my breath at the forested spectacle (景观景观). One autumn afternoon as I stood overlooking the New River Gorge, a weathered mountaineer turned to me and asked,”you ever been to the Rockies (洛肌洛肌山脉山脉)?” When I replied that I had, he continued proudly, “well, so have I, and it ain’t no prettier than this.”9/11/2024774.Specific-general (inductive)The topic sentence with controlling idea is the final sentence. For exampleYoung people do not spend all their time in school. Their elders commonly spend none of it there. Yet their elders are, we hope, constantly growing in practical wisdom. They are, at least, having experience. If we can teach them while they are being educated how to reason, they may be able to comprehend and assimilate their9/11/202478Continued experience. It is a good principle ofeducational administration because a college or university has a vast and complicated job if it does what only it can do. In general education, therefore, we may wisely leave experience to life and set about our job of intellectual training.9/11/202479Example American might be embarrassed because their Japanese friends are so formal with them. Japanese might feel insulted because American acquaintances greet them casually. Still, the forms of greeting in both countries only show respect for others. It just happens that Americans and Japanese have a different way of looking at human relationships and thus have a different way of showing respects.9/11/2024805.Climax Arrange the basic materials from least to most important; withhold the most critical fact or argument until last. The following paragraph illustrates climactic order based on opinion. James B. Conant expresses his opinion first and then quotes that of another person to support his controlling idea.9/11/202481Example The enthusiastic spectators at school and college contests rarely realize how corroding is the spirit generated by their zeal for winning teams. One has to visit high school after high school, as I have done in recent years, to see how much the public is to blame for some of the troubles that plague our public schools. 9/11/202482Continued Times and again, at the end of visit, after discussing curriculums and teaching problems, the superintendent would say to me, “we haven’t yet talked about my chief problem. Which, to be quite frank, is the record of the high school teams. Let’s face it—what this city demands is that I get coaches whose teams will win, or out I go.”9/11/202483Practice When we begin writing a paragraph with supporting details arranged in order of importance, we should make list of the ideas that come to mind of our topic; go through our list and decide on our purpose; then write a topic sentence with controlling idea.Suppose we are given instructions like this:9/11/202484Write a paragraph arranged in order of importance.the topic sentence of the paragraph has been given on the writing paper.Topic sentence (No.1): Students with alert and curious minds may learn a great deal from sources other than their formal classes.Detail list: 1.reading materials (No.2): books, newspaper, & the magazines (No.3)2.jobs (No.2)3.social clubs (No.2)4.broadcast (No.2) : television & radio (No.3)9/11/202485Arrangement in order of importance1.Broadcast  most important2.jobs  less important 3.reading materials  still less important4.social clubs  least important9/11/202486Three fundamental featuresA central idea;A topic sentence that expresses the central idea—supporting details;Close connection between the sentences—orders/sequencing,transitions9/11/202487Patterns of DevelopmentTo write a paragraph, we have already learned how to select supporting details and in what way to arrange our sentences.Six basic patterns of paragraph development: 1.narration, 2.process, 3.definition, 4.classification, parison & contrast, 6.cause & effect. Each of them is particular way to develop paragraph. 9/11/202488Narration (usually in time order)To choose interesting details, for example:Follow the BusI jumped off the bus before it stopped and began walking down the street. As I had arrived early, I decided to look at the shop windows before going home. The idea made me quite happy, but at the same time I had the unpleasant feeling that I had forgotten something. I stopped in the middle of the pavement and began searching my pockets. All of a sudden I remembered that I was9/11/202489Continued without my briefcase! I had left it on the bus and it was full of important papers. The thought was enough to make me start running down the street, though, by now, the bus was out of sight.9/11/202490Process (in time or logic order )To explain how to do something or how something works. For example:Making PaperModern paper is manufactured from a mixture of various fibers like rags, linen, wood, wastepaper. The main ingredient is of course wood pulp, produced from complete trees after the bark has been removed. The main areas of production are Finland and Canada, where the trees are cut down, taken to the saw mill, and chopped up. The pieces of wood are then ground up and mixed9/11/202491Continued with water to make wood pulp. This is mixed with other substances, such as glue, to make a paper fiber mixture, and then poured out on to wire screens. There are large area of wire mesh-sheets of metal with a large number of holes in them. Here the water is extracted from the mixture, which is dried and passed through many rollers to press it into shape. This process produces one continuous sheet of paper which is wound into a large roll at the end of the manufacturing process.9/11/202492The scheme of a process paragraph may look like thisIntroduction: Name the process, explains why it is being performed, and provides an overviewBody: Presents the steps of the paragraph: Step1; Step2; Step3;…Conclusion: Reviews the process and note its significance 9/11/202493Definition In various ways:1. the dictionary definition, which provides a synonym or shows how a word fits into a general class; 2. using a paragraph to define a term allows for a thorough discussion; 3. illustration with examples to discuss the word’s origins, compare it with similar one, or to tell what it is not.9/11/202494For example:An atom is similar to a biological cell or a microscopic model of a solar system. It is the smallest unit of a chemical element, composed of a central nucleus surrounded by electronically charged particles. The word “atom” derives from a Greek work which, in English, means “indivisible”, but one of the scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century was the successful attempt to split the atom. Splitting atoms produces energy, providing us with an alternate source of power to reduce the demand for expensive and diminishing natural sources of energy such as oil and coal.9/11/202495The schemeTopic sentence: Includes terms to be defined, formal definition, & thesisBody: Expands the basic definitionConclusion: Sums up, makes predictions or recommendations, or restates thesis.9/11/202496Division & Classification Division: begin with a whole, then break it into its parts;Classification: begin with many small observations and sort them into categories on the basis of their similaritiesMostly, they are closely related processes.9/11/202497For example:Every educated person has at least 2 ways of speaking his mother tongue. The first is that which he employs in his family, among his familiar friends, and on ordinary occasions. The second is that which he uses in discoursing on more complicated subjects, and in addressing persons with whom he is less intimately acquainted. It is, in short, the language which he employs when he is on his dignity, as he puts on evening dress when he is going to dine.9/11/202498The scheme of arrangement Topic sentence: Name the categories; state thesisBody: First category; Second one; Third one; …Conclusion: Reviews categories; clarifies their relationship to each other9/11/202499Comparison & ContrastTransitions for comparing (showing similarities): similarly, similar to, like, also & resembling;Transitions for contrast (showing differences): in contrast to, unlike, however, on the other hand, differ from9/11/2024100For exampleWhale and human beings are like two nations of individuals who have certain characteristics in common. As mammals they both are warm-blooded, giving milk, and breathing air. As social creatures they both have basic urges for privacy as well as for fraternization. As species bent on reproduction they both show similar patterns of aggression during courtship, the male trying to gain the female’s attention and the female responding. Finally, as mystical beings they both are caught in the net of life and time, follow prisoners of the splendor, travail, and secrets of earth.9/11/2024101Cause & EffectTo explore why something happened or explain what happened as a result of something else.Sometimes such a paragraph deals only with causes because the effects are already clear; sometimes it only concentrates on effects because a given cause clearly exist, and the only question is to ask “What happened as a result?)9/11/2024102For exampleThe blizzard last March disrupted many people’s lives. Thousands of households were without power for hours and, in some cases, days. Children could not get to their schools, and adults either could not get to their jobs or could not get home from their jobs. Motorists were stranded on snow-blocked roads and highways, and the motels in a three-state area were filled to capacity. It took road crews and power company crews three weeks to undo what the three-day blizzard had done.9/11/2024103The schemeTopic sentence: Identifies effects or causes; states thesisBody: Cause 1 or effect 1; Cause 2 or effect 2; Cause 3 or effect 3; …Conclusion: Reviews causes; establishes their relationship to effectOr : Reconsiders effects; connects them to cause9/11/2024104Analogy (a figurative comparison)To explain a complicated idea by comparing it to a simple idea or more concrete image.The items compared are from different classes. For example, the writer may compare the life of a person to a river.It can help us make complicated things simpler or show in different ways.9/11/2024105For example The atmosphere of Earth acts like any window in serving two very important functions. It lets light in and it permits us to look out. It also serves as a shield to keep out dangerous or uncomfortable things. A normal glazed （光滑的）（光滑的）window lets us keep our house warm by keeping out cold air, and it prevents rain, dirt, and unwelcome insects and animals from coming in. As we have already seen, Earth’s atmospheric window also helps to keep our planet at a comfortable temperature by holding back radiated heat and protecting us from dangerous levels of ultraviolet light.9/11/2024106Example: translate I thought:hope cannot be said to exist, nor can it be said not to exist.It is just like roads across the earth. For actually the earth had no road to begin with, but when many men pass one way, a road is made. 9/11/2024107Original text鲁迅《故乡》我想我想:“希望是本无所谓有希望是本无所谓有,无所谓无的。

无所谓无的这正如地上的路这正如地上的路;其实地上本没有路其实地上本没有路,走的走的人多了人多了,也便成了路也便成了路9/11/2024108Qualities of a Good ParagraphUnityCoherenceContinuityCompletenessProper LengthProper Proportion9/11/2024109UnityUnity means oneness, or singleness of purpose. A good paragraph should develop one specific idea and no more. If a paragraph develops more than one idea, it fails to have unity. Paragraph unity, therefore, rests on the principal of inclusion and exclusion: inclusion of relevant materials and exclusion of irrelevant materials. P13-15 Samples1, 39/11/2024110Structure of sample 1topic(1st sentence) Supporting details 1(3rd sentence)Viewpoint 1Supporting details 2(5th sentence)Viewpoint 2Specification of topic(2nd sentence)Supporting details(4th sentence)Reasons for V1Supporting detail(6th sentence)Reasons for V29/11/2024111One of the greatest enemies of paragraph unity is the human thought process. We tend to think associatively rather than logically. One fact reminds us of another, even if the latter is not logically related to the former.9/11/2024112To make sure your paragraph are unified, you should begin each one with a topic sentence that states the controlling idea. All minor supports should further explain the major supports and the controlling idea at the same time.9/11/2024113CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph refers to the proper arrangement of sentences. That is, each sentence in a paragraph naturally leads to the next sentence in explaining the controlling idea. To achieve coherence, all sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a logical order. It mainly focuses on the organization of a paragraph. P16-18 Samples1-39/11/2024114Coherence1. Paragraph StructureTo achieve coherence, all sentences in a paragraph should be arranges in a logical order. That is, a sentence of general statement comes first, secondly followed by less general, then the still less general would be the third. In a word, sentence logical arrangement in a paragraph can be made according to the level of generality. Foe example, if you want to write a paragraph about "A surprise party for Marjorie Martin", the level of generality is probably written like this:9/11/20241151)surprise party for Marjorie Martin2)guest list (major supporting)3)school friends (minor)3)church friends3)brothers and sisters2)menu3)drinks and food4)fruit punch and coffee4)sandwiches4)birthday cake, candle, ice cream9/11/2024116Continued2)entertainment3)magic tricks3)guitar3)group singing3)records and record player9/11/2024117Let's read the actual paragraph:We recently planned a surprise party for Marjorie Martin who was twenty years old but never had a birthday party before. First, we carefully made a guest list. We includes many of her friends from school, a few of her friends from church, and all of her brothers and sisters. Second, we planned a suitable drinks and food. We needed some refreshing drinks and food. We were going to serve fruit punch and coffee.9/11/2024118ContinuedWe also wanted chicken sandwiches, a birthday cake with twenty candles, and ice cream. Third, we planned entertainment. A boy did magic tricks skillfully. Another boy played guitar well. We all liked group singing. We had a lot of records and a record player. Helped by everyone, the party became a secret community project.9/11/2024119Key pointsIn short, to gain coherence in a paragraph, you must plan and arrange the content deliberately so that the paragraph will develop naturally and logically. As to the order you should choose when writing a paragraph, that depends on your purpose and the content of the paragraph.9/11/2024120Continuity-1Continuity is achieved often by the use of transition. Appropriate transitions are necessary between paragraphs, between sentences, and even within sentences. The best transitional device is a logical presentation. (getting ideas into their proper order; avoiding interruptions and irrelevant details) In addition to logical presentation, a number of specific devices aid transitions, including 9/11/2024121Continuity-2transitional words (especially conjunctions and adverbs) P19-22pronouns and pronominal adjectives synonyms for or the repetition of important words and phrases parallel sentence structureconsistent point of view 9/11/2024122Transitions:words or other devices that join one idea to another to give coherence to a paragraph (within a paragraph or between paragraphs). For example:9/11/2024123Example (without transitions)A. In the last twenty years or so, some undeveloped countries have increased their food production. Their population have at the same time grown faster. The standard of living has not been improved. The increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal lands. There has been no gain in the productivity of land labor.9/11/2024124Example (with transitions)B. In the last twenty years or so, some undeveloped countries have increased their food production. Their population, however, have at the same time grown faster. And so their standard of living has not been improved. What's more, their increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal lands. As a result,there has been no gain in the productivity of land labor.9/11/20241251.Connectors as transitions1)Number TransitionsThere are four main areas of the world where deposits of oil appear. The first is that of the Middle East,…；； another is the area between North and South America；； and the third，， between Asia and Australia…；； the fourth area is the cold region near the North Pole，， not yet exploited.…9/11/20241262)Emphatic TransitionsA very important world problem————in fact，， I am inclined to say it is the most of all the great world problems which face us at the present time ————is the rapidly increasing pressure of population on land and on land resources.9/11/20241273)Qualifying TransitionsMany cities worry about violence on television, most out of fear that it stimulates viewers to violent or aggressive acts. Our research, however, indicates that the consequences of experiencing TV's symbolic world of violence may be much more far reaching.4)Illustrating Transitions (for example, for instance, thus, to illustrate)9/11/2024128Continued 5)For additional (secondly, in the second place, then, furthermore, next, moreover, in addition, similarly, again, also, finally)My roommate Paul possesses the characteristics of a good student. One of his characteristics is always being prepared for classes. For example, when his philosophy professor assigns a class…. In addition, when his English teacher assigns an out-of-class essay, he brings to class the final copy of an essay that he has revised several times.9/11/20241296)For Comparison & Contrast( in the same way, on the other hand, nevertheless, despite this fact, on the contrary, still, however, conversely, instead)Jane and Karen have many things in common. To begin with, both girls have the same background.…Next, both girls are interested in school.…Furthermore, both girls want to be teachers.…9/11/20241307)For Consequence(therefore, in conclusion, to sum up, consequently, as a result, accordingly, in other world) …. Because single people live alone, their financial security depends on their own efforts. As a result, career goals becomes extremely important to them. Their single status give them the opportunity to pursue career goals based solely on their own needs.9/11/20241318)For Time Order (meanwhile, later, at the same time, soon, etc)9)For Space Order (in front of, to the right, to my left, etc)From my dormitory window, I inspected the park below daily. Directly in front of me I saw the graceful swaying (摆动摆动)branches of a bamboo hedge (竹林竹林)that separated the park from the busy street beyond. It provides a lovely green background to the purple and blue periwinkles (长长春花春花)that bloomed in the bed just to the right of it. To my left stood a stately elm (榆树榆树).9/11/20241322. Pronoun as transitions (it, they, this, that, those, I, he she, they, such, & one)When a pronoun is used as a transition, it moves a thought forward.A pronoun can appear within a sentence or linking two sentences together.In the following example, the transition “it” connects several ideas, making the paragraph coherent.9/11/2024133PronounWe want you to try our product. Not only is it new, improved; and easy to use, but it also comes in a giant economy size that will save you money. Nine out of ten doctors recommended it, a famous Hollywood star uses it every day, and, if you buy it and try it, your love life will improve, and your neighbors will envy you. 9/11/2024134Continued On the other hand, if you don’t use our product, romance will fly out the window, and your neighbors will despite you. Even worse, you’ll still have to listen to you commercials! So look for our brightly colored display in a store near you! Discovering American English Reading, H. Krants.9/11/20241353. Synonyms as transitionsFor example: A myth suggests that both the poor and the wealth are criminals, or at least potential lawbreakers, because the poor are pressed to crime by their poverty, and because the latter could hardly have gained their possessions with honesty and constructive work. This fiction, however, seems to fading out gradually.Introduction to Criminology, Stephen Shafer9/11/20241364. Repeating a Word as TransitionsRepeating a word to keep an idea moving ahead helps a piece of writing, adds coherence. For example:Many people have installed wood burning stoves in their homes this year. Wood is considerably cheaper to burn than oil, because home heating oil has doubled in price in the past twelve months, but the price of wood has remained about the same.9/11/2024137Continued People who are concerned that rising oil prices may force them to choose between eating properly and keeping warm are shopping for attractive, safe, and efficient wood burning stoves. Because of the growing interest in these stoves, there are dozens of new models, in a wide variety of styles and sizes to choose from. Manufacturers have sold thousands of these old-time heaters to homeowners this year.Ways of Developing Paragraphs.ppt9/11/20241385. Parallel sentence structure6. Consistent point of view(See textbook p21)9/11/2024139A paragraph without transitional words and phrases-1The simplest way of keeping fits is by exercising regularly. The exercise must be vigorous. Vigorous exercise keeps our muscles strong and supple. Exercise can guarantee ourselves against all illnesses. Exercise helps building up stamina, enabling us to keep our reflexes sharp and limbs flexible and strong. Exercising alone9/11/2024140A paragraph without transitional words and phrases-2 is not enough, the food and drinks that we take are also important. Fatty foods and alcohol are two that we have to be careful about. We have to be careful not to over exercise until we collapse from fatigue.9/11/2024141A paragraph with transitional words and phrases-1 The simplest way of keeping fits is by exercising regularly. The exercise, however, must be vigorous to keep our muscles strong and supple. Furthermore, exercise can guarantee ourselves against all illnesses. Exercise not only helps building up stamina, but also enables us to keep our reflexes sharp and limbs flexible and strong. As a matter of fact, 9/11/2024142A paragraph with transitional words and phrases-2 exercising alone is not enough, the food and drinks that we take are also important. For example, fatty foods and alcohol are two that we have to be careful about. Lastly, we have to be careful not to over exercise until we collapse from fatigue.9/11/2024143CompletenessCompleteness in a paragraph means that the topic is adequately developed by details, explanations, evidence, and the like, so that the reader is not left with only a fuzzy idea of what you mean. Samples3, 4 P24-27 9/11/2024144Example-1Some scientists believe that there are three kinds of memory－immediate, short-term and long-term. Immediate memory holds items of information coming from the five senses for less than a second. Then it either rejects them or passes them into short-term memory. Short-term memory can hold about seven items of information at one time such as9/11/2024145Example-2 telephone numbers. It holds them for about thirty seconds. Then they are rejected or passed into long-term memory. When people get older, the short-term memory becomes worse, but we can still remember things that happened long time ago.9/11/2024146Proper LengthA paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten or more sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly. A paragraph should not be too long or too short. The former will cause digression; while the latter cannot express the main idea clearly.9/11/2024147Example (1) Electricity is a part of our lives. It has so many uses. Without it our modern ways of living would be severely affected. Electricity drives so many appliances in our modern world. We could not live without radio, television, refrigerator, fan, or the light bulb. Without electricity, our world would be entirely different.9/11/2024148Example (2)-1 Electricity is so much a part of our lives in this modern world that we take it very much for granted. Without it our modern ways of living would be severely affected or even impossible. Electricity drives so many appliances in our modern world. The radio, television, refrigerator, air-conditioner, computer, pocket calculator, fan, light bulb, motor, 9/11/2024149Example (2)-2 and hundreds of other devices all require electricity in order to work. If we did not know how to use electricity, our world would not be as modern as it is now. Electricity, for all its wonder and usefulness, is not easy to store. So, to get this precious energy we need to convert it from other forms of energy. The most9/11/2024150Example (2)-3 common way of generating electricity is by using a generator. But to run a generator we need other sources of energy. We make use of coal, water, oil, energy from the sun, atomic energy, and other sources to drive our generators. In short, without electricity our world would be entirely different9/11/2024151Proper Proportion A Good Paragraph Topic sentence, 1/5 Supporting Sentences, 3/5 Concluding Sentence, 1/59/11/20241529/11/2024153。