园林树木学西农吉文丽第一章.ppt

                                                                 pandectChapter 1 Taxonomy and Classification of Landscape trees ( 2 periods)Methods of Classification:Natural classificationArtificial classificationTaxonomy(分类学分类学): the classification of organisms in an ordered hierarchical system that indicates natural and evolutionary relationships between them. -----natural classificationClassification(分类分类): according to the function of woody landscape plants in urban greening.-----artificial classification As  we  know,  there  are  about  8000  woody landscape plants in our country. Of these, 3000 species have  been  cultivated.  We  also  introduced  more  than 1000 cultivars from foreign country.  More than 2000 species  in  Xishuangbanna  botanical  garden  are collected, but only several hundreds species are applied to urban area. In order to grow more woody species in landscape  architecture,  we  should  know  the  names, characteristics of woody plants first. Correct plant is very important for application. It is worse and more dangerous to people for using wrong plants as food.  For example, 木本香料并做调料品的八角和莽草都是同科（八角科）、同属（八角属）、的常绿乔木。

形态很相似（八角的聚合  果8，先端钝尖或短尖；莽草聚合  果10-13，先端是细长弯曲的尖头）如不能正确区别，误食莽草可置人于死地所以需正确鉴定，进行分类We will review the principles of systematic classification, the plant nomenclature, and keys first, then learn how to construct and use dichotomous key(分支式检索表).分类学（taxonomy）可以定义为研究和描述有机体的变异、探讨这种变异的因果关系、并运用所掌握的资料去建立某个分类系统的学科分类学和系统学（systematic）这两个术语现在常被不严格地作为同义词并用，如果要说两个术语有些什么不同的含义，那么分类学常用来指分类理论和实践（包括它的基础、原理、步骤和规则）而不是它的最终产物（分类系统）；系统学是有机体的种类和多样性以及它们间全部亲缘关系的研究（simpson 1961），比分类学含义多少宽广些The principles of systematic classification                 (系统分类的基本原则系统分类的基本原则)Systematics (系统分类学系统分类学): the study of relationships of organisms and evolutionary processes. The taxonomic organization of species is hierarchical. Each species (Prunus persica桃, for example) belongs to a genus (Prunus桃属,李属,樱属,梅属), each genus belongs to a family (Rosaceae蔷薇科), each family belongs to an order (Rosales蔷薇目), each order belongs to a class (Dicotyledoneae双子叶植物纲), each class belongs to a phylum (Spermatophyta种子植物门), and each phylum belongs to a kingdom (Plantae植物界). Concept of speciesn物种的概念物种的概念 ：大家所接受的概念是：种是自种是自然界中然界中客观存在的一种类群客观存在的一种类群，这个类群中的所，这个类群中的所有个体都有着有个体都有着极其相似的形态特征极其相似的形态特征和和生理生理、、生生态特性态特性，，个体之间可以自然交配产生正常个体之间可以自然交配产生正常的后的后代而使种族延续，它们在自然界中占有一定的代而使种族延续，它们在自然界中占有一定的分布区域分布区域。

人们就以这种客观存在的类群称为人们就以这种客观存在的类群称为种，也是作为种，也是作为分类的基本单位分类的基本单位nHome worknImportant Plant Classification TerminologynGenus: Weakly defined as a group of plants containing one or more species. The species have more characteristics in common with each other than they do with species of other genera in the same family. Similarity of flowers and fruits is the most widely used feature of comparison.n A genus may contain a single species (e.g., Ginkgo biloba) or more than 100 (e.g., Rosa spp.). The plural of the singular genus is generaSpecies: A group of individual plants that are fundamentally the same, separated from other closely related species by "distinct" morphological differences. All individuals in a given species are not identical, but can express variation in certain traits. Species is abbreviated sp. (singular) or spp. (plural).Variety: A population of plants within a species that display clear differences, differences that occur in natural populations. A variety name is written in lower case, italicized or underlined, and preceded by the abbreviation var. For example, Honeylocust is Gleditsia triacanthos whereas the Thornless Honeylocust is Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis (Latin for lacking thorns). Subspecies (abbreviated ssp.) is for practical purposes equivalent to variety.Forma: Describes sporadic variations, such as an occasional white flowered plant in a population of a normally red-flowered species. For example, Quercusglauca Thung. (青岗栎 )is usually big leaves in nature, but small leaves plants occur naturally, being referred to as Quercus glauca Thung. f. gracilis Rehd. et. Wils(小叶青岗栎 ).Cultivar: A term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey and derived from the term "cultivated variety". It is defined as an assemblage of cultivated plants, which are clearly distinguished by one or more characters, and which when reproduced (sexually or asexually) retains its distinguishing characteristics. A yellow stem form of Redosier Dogwood is Cornus sericea ‘Flaviramea‘( 金枝梾木）. The cultivar name is not italicized or underlined and has single quotes on either side of the name. Cultivar is abbreviated cv. so the plant could also be named with the single quotes deleted, such as, Cornus sericea cv. Flaviramea.Hybrid: This is a plant that has originated from a cross (or hybridization) between two species within a genera (Interspecific Hybrid), or two different genera (Intergeneric Hybrid). The small multiplication sign "x" used between genus and specific epithet names simply indicates that the plant is an interspecific hybrid origin (Example: Abelia x grandiflora). An intergeneric hybrid is written with a large multiplication sign "X" before the genus name (Example: X Cupressocyparis leylandii. )n1. 种的学名种的学名如：银杏 Ginkgo biloba L.多为名词 多为形容词 命名人缩写n2. 变种的学名：变种的学名：在种名之后加上Var.(varietas)符号再加上变种词 如：樟子松是欧洲松的变种 Pinus sylvestris Linn. var. mongolica Litr. 欧洲松 变种符号 变种加词常写为 Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica n3. 变型的学名：变型的学名：f. (forma)小叶青岗栎 Quercus glauca Thung. f. gracilis Rehd. et. Wils. 符号 变型加词    Patents and Trademarks: Patents give exclusive rights and protection to an inventor to make, use, and sell an invention. For 20 years after the date indicated on a plant patent, only the patent holder may commercially raise or sell a patented plant. Others may do so through license or royalty agreements with the patent holder. Trademarks provide another form of protection. The plant name can be trademarked and such names cannot be used as a name for any other similar plant.    Trademarked plant names are indicated by use of a trademark (™), such as Betula nigra Heritage™, whereas patented plants are designated with a registered trademark (®). Confusing to some is the fact that patented cultivars must be given, in addition to the registered trademark name, an official cultivar name registered according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP国际栽培植物命名法规 ). In the case of Betula nigra Heritage™, the actual cultivar name approved by the International Cultivar Registration Authorities (ICRAs国际品种登录权威 ) is actually 'Cully'.Plant Recognition Learning to recognize different kinds of plants in the nursery and landscape is an important skill that requires close observation and knowledge of plant parts. Landscape ornamentals vary greatly in overall shape and habit, ranging from sprawling groundcovers to mounding shrubs, to columnar to weeping trees.  Even when the general shape is similar, landscape plants can differ in numerous other traits, including the shape, color, and size of leaves, flowers, and fruits, and the color and texture of bark and twigs. Notwithstanding, knowledge of these characteristics alone may not be enough to clearly separate one type of plant from another, especially when environmental or cultural factors like pruning have altered the plants natural form and growth, or the plant is very young or old.  For these reasons, additional morphological features often need to be examined for accurate plant identification, like leaf arrangement and type, and leaf shape, and leaf apices, leaf bases, leaf margins, type of leaf venation, shape of leaf scars and vascular bundles, terminal and lateral bud shape, size, and color, and flower and inflorescence morphology.  3 3分类系统上的等级（以桃为例）分类系统上的等级（以桃为例） 界--------------------------------------------植物界 门----------------------------------------种子植物门  亚门----------------------------------被子植物亚门    纲----------------------------------双子叶植物纲      亚纲----------------------------离瓣花亚纲        目----------------------------蔷薇目          亚目----------------------蔷薇科            亚科-------------------李亚科              属-------------------梅属                亚属-------------桃亚属                  种-------------桃nBiological system of Linnaeus (Taxonomic System)nIn the formal nomenclature of any species, living or fossil, taxonomists follow the biological system of  Linnaeus. nKingdom n      Phylum(phyla) n               Class n                        Order n                                Family n                                        Genus(genera) n                                                         Species nSubdivisions: Sub-(亚）, super（超）nPlant Nomenclature nIntroductory CommentsThe overall objective of this lecture is to help you learn about plant nomenclature and classification. The information presented here provides an important foundation for future learning about landscape plants. You will learn principles that govern the proper writing of scientific names (i.e. Latin binomial), skills that are essential for communication within the landscape industry. You will also become familiar with the scientific basis for classifying plants into distinct groupings. Spend time putting as much of this information as possible to memory before moving on.Binomial nomenclature (二名法，双名法）: Each species is defined by two names: the generic and specific names with Latin. In full taxonomic nomenclature the author’s name and the date of the publication are given after the species, e.g. Squamularia grandlis Chao, 1929 Generic name + Specific name + Author’s name + Date Both generic and specific names in italicLaw of priority (优先律）All the nomenclature of organisms follow the law of priority: The first published name is valid nPlant NamesnPlants can be described using descriptors such as tree, shrub, vine, groundcover, evergreen, deciduous, annual, perennial, woody, herbaceous, hardy, tender, etc. Single word descriptions like these are useful but contribute only little to separating one plant-kind from another. nFor example, many quite different plants could all be referred to as trees. More thorough descriptions using many words, as was done in early scientific naming systems, are too complex and cumbersome for common usage. Today, each plant kind is given a unique scientific name. Carolus Linnaeus (in his Species Plantarum, 1753) first developed the scientific system we now use to name plants, referred to as the Linnaean Binomial System of Nomenclature.Using this system, plants are given two Latinized names that create a binomial. In the Latin binomial, the first name is called the genus and the second is called the specific epithet. The generic name and the specific epithet combine to form the species name. For example, the species name for the North American Sugar Maple is Acer saccharum. The Latin genus Acer is the ancient Latin name for maple (perhaps meaning hard as is the wood), whereas the specific epithet saccharum is latin for sugar or sugar cane.  Since few people speak Latin, an obvious question might be, "why not simply use common English names, like Sugar Maple, instead of scientific Latin names?" The primary problem with common names is that they are often commonly used in only localized regions. For example, the Sugar Maple is often called Rock or Hard Maple in different parts of the United States. The American Hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) is also called Blue Beech, Musclewood, Water Beech, or Ironwood in various regions. Dirr notes in his Manual of Woody Landscape Plants (1998) that the European White Waterlily (Nymphaea alba) has 15 different common English names, 44 French, 105 German, and 81 Dutch names, a total of over 245 common names nTo compound the problem, identical common names in different regions often refer to completely different plants. The potential for confusion in the communications between people living in different geographical regions is obvious. To standardize plant names around the world, a single species name, a Latin binomial, has been established for each plant according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) by the activity of authorities coordinated in part through the International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT). The registering of culivar names is the resonsibility of the International Cultivar Registration Authorities (ICRAs).  国际植物命名法规国际植物命名法规International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)①一种植物只能有一个合法的名称，其它名称都作为异名② 一种植物若有几个名称，应按优先律（最早发表的为合法名称）处理。

③ 所有植物名都要用拉丁名或拉丁化的名称④给每种植物命名，必须有模式标本⑤合法名称的成立必须在正式国家刊物、杂志、著作发表，必须有拉丁文记载 中名的命名原则中名的命名原则①    一种植物只应有一个全国通用的中文名称，至于全国各地的地方名，可任其存在而称为地方名②    中文属名是植物中名的核心，在拟定时选择使用广泛、形象生动与形态、生态、用途有联系的中名作属名 ③    名称中尽量避免迷信色彩及纪念古人或今人的名称,目前还存在混乱nWriting a Species NamenThe species name (i.e. Latin binomial) is italicized or underlined. The first letter of the genus is in upper case whereas the specific epithet is in all lower case letters.nAs an example, the species name for Sugar Maple should be written as:nAcer saccharum or Acer saccharumnA name often following the Latin binomial, as in Acer saccharum Marsh., is the abbreviated name of the individual who first assigned a scientific name to the plant, in this case Humphrey Marshall. The letter "L." in the Latin name Hedera helix L. identifies Linnaeus as the authority. The authority name is not typically included in nursery and landscape literature.     In  the  seed  plants,  there  are  many systems  of  plant  taxonomy,  like  ;    ;    ; A·Cronquist; Zheng Wanjun, etc.    Most common systems of plant taxonomy are ;   在种子植物门中，有许多分类系统。

象哈钦松分类系统、恩格勒分类系统、塔赫他间分类系统、克朗奎斯特系统、郑万钧系统等目前最常用的是哈哈钦钦松松分分类类系统和恩格勒分类系统系统和恩格勒分类系统自然分类系统中两个主要系统的特点简介自然分类系统中两个主要系统的特点简介  1.   恩格勒（恩格勒（Enger）系统）系统               德国的恩格勒编写了两本巨著《植物自然分科志》和《植物分科志要》系统描述了全世界的植物，内容丰富并有插图，很多国家采用了这个系统特点如下：①在被子植物中，单性而无花被的为原始特征，所以将木麻黄科、杨柳科、桦木科等放在木兰科、毛茛科之前②认为单子叶植物比双子叶植物原始 1964年改变，把双子叶植物放在前边，便于同其他植物学家统一③目与科的范围较大该系统较稳定而实用，所以在世界各国及中国北方多采用，如：《中国树木分类》《中国植物志》《中国高等植物图鉴》等书均采用本系统2  哈钦松（）系统哈钦松（）系统          英国的哈钦松在其著作《有花植物志科》中公布了这个系统特点如下：①认为单子叶植物比较进化，故排在双子叶植物之后②在双子叶植物中，将木本与草本分开，并认为乔木为原始性状，草本为进化性状。

③认为花的各部呈离生状态、花的各部呈螺旋状排列、具有多数离生雄蕊、两性花等性状均较原始；而花的各部分呈合生或附生、花部呈轮状排列、具有少数合生雄蕊、单性花等性状属于较进化的性状哈钦松（）系统哈钦松（）系统④ 认为在具有萼片和花瓣的植物中，如果它的雄蕊和雌蕊在解剖上属于原始性状时，则比无萼片与花瓣的植物为原始，例如杨柳科等的无花被特征是属于退化的现象⑤ 单叶和叶呈互生排列现象属于原始性状，复叶或叶呈对生或轮生排列现象属于较进化的现象⑥ 目与科的范围较小 目前认为该系统较为合理，但原书中没有包括裸子植物中国南方学者采用的多如：南方植物园、《广州植物志》《园林树木1000种》、《树木学》、《海南植物志》等都是哈钦松分类系统The system of Engler and Prantl' has servedly commanded universal attention. Their system has been widely accepted, though in recent years it has been subjected to some criticism. It is generally admitted that many anomalies in the older arrangements were adjusted and that great contributions were made to our knowledge of Taxonomic BotanyMr. Hutchinson has ventured to express his dissent from Engler and Prantl's views in this book and has returned, wisely as I think, to the position adopted by the authors of the Genera Plantarum, since he regards the Ranales on the one hand and the Magnoliales on the other as the starting-points of his phylogenetic arrangementIdentification is the recognition of characteristics of organisms and the application of a name to an organism with those particular characters The dichotomous key is the method employed for identifying unknown organisms. The evolution of keys has been the result of work by taxonomists who study the characteristics of organisms at some taxonomic level (= category) and often develop keys for their identification. nThis exercise introduces you to the construction and use of a dichotomous key. It is not meant to provide students a method of quick memorization of scientific names. The proficiency level of using keys, and learning names, is a reflection of the amount of time one spends keying organisms. The more time spent using keys, the more familiar the characteristics of organisms become, and the more proficient one becomes with keys. 植物分类检索表植物分类检索表 定距检索表定距检索表        本检索表中，对某一种性状的描述是从书页左边一定距离处开始，而与其相对的性状描述亦是从书页左边同一距离处开始；其下一级的两个相对性状的描述又均在更大一些的距离上开始，如此逐渐下去，距书页左方愈来愈远，直至检索出所需要的名称为止。

                                                  A1植物体无根、茎、叶的分化 ----------------------------------低等植物门    B1植物体不为藻类和菌类所组成的共生体       C1植物体内有叶绿素或其它光合作用---------------------藻类植物门       C2植物体内无叶绿素或其它光合作用---------------------菌类植物门    B2植物体为藻类和菌类所组成的共生体---------------------地衣植物门A2植物体有根、茎、叶的分化------------------------------------高等植物    B1植物体有茎、叶，而无真根---------------------------------苔藓植物门    B2植物体有茎、叶，也有真根      C1不产生种子，用孢子繁殖----------------------------------蕨类植物门      C2产生种子-------------------------------------------------------种子植物门平行检索表：平行检索表：本检索表中每一相对性状的描写紧紧并列以便比较，在一种性状描述之后即列出所需的名称或数字。

此数字重新列于较底的一行之首，与另一组相对性状平行排列；如此继续下去直至查处所需名称为止1. 花小、花冠辐射对称--------------含羞草亚科1.1.花大、花冠左右对称或略左右对称------22 2. 花冠左右对称，并为蝶形花冠----------蝶形花亚科3.2. 花冠略左右对称，非蝶形花冠------------苏木亚科 Artificial classification2      Growth formWoody plants are grouped into arbor, shrub, vine and groundcover according to their growth form, the four groups as follow:  Arbor:        An arbor may be defined as a woody plant which at  maturity  6  (4)  m  or  more,  with  a  singe  trunk, unbranched for at least several meters. Arbors are also grouped into large arbor (above 31m), big arbor(21-30m) ,middle arbor(11-20m) and small arbor(6-10m) according to their height; They are also grouped into slow, moderate and fast  tree  according  to  their growth rate.Shrub: A shrub may be defined as a woody plant with several perennial stems that may be erect or may lay close to the ground. It will usually have a height less than 6 meters and no more than about 8 cm in diameter. Woody vine:Woody vines indicate those plants that have perennial stems that cannot support themselves. Vines use other plants or objects to rise above the ground or they lie along the ground. Vines attach themselves to other objects with tendrils(卷须,如葡萄等） or by twining(茎缠绕,如紫藤) or sucker （吸附根,如凌霄等）or tendrils with adhesive pads （吸盘,如爬山虎等）.Though woody vines have perennial stems, these stems rarely get very large in diameter.Creeping shrub:A creeping shrub can be defined as a woody plant with several perennial stems those are creeping form.(如铺地柏)Shortcomings of growth form classification:The distinction between arbors and shrubs is not always clear. We all know that a large cottonwood(三叶杨) is a tree and a creeping juniper is a shrub, but there are many shrub-like trees and tree-like shrubs.如木芙蓉在浙江一带是灌木，在这儿严冬枯萎，翌春又由根部萌发新枝，而在西南、成都老家又是乔木；辽东丁香在北京是灌木，在百花山海拔1000米以上是乔木；蓖麻在北方是草本，在西双版纳则是乔木；白兰花在苏、杭一带高仅1—2米，适于盆栽灌木，然而在云南、四川、广东、广西、福建等省，则高达数十米的乔木。

3  Classification of Ornamental Characteristics    Ø Timber trees( forest trees): There is no beautiful leaves, flowers and fruits ,but they show some promise for landscape use.E.g. Gymnosperm (裸子植物)、 Catkin species(葇荑花序类)、 (bamboo) species竹类等ØOrnamental flower plants:  beautiful ,colorful, fragrant flowers.E.g. 桂花、山茶、瑞香、牡丹、海棠等     ØOrnamental fruit plants: colorful, unique shape, sweet or pleasant flavor fruitsØOrnamental leaf plants: the plant leaves with beautiful color and shape or fall color trees or spring color trees.E.g. 鸡爪槭、柽柳、石楠、紫叶李等。

ØShade trees：the trees with a widespreading crown and good shade. E.g.桉树、樟树、鹅掌楸等ØVines: A weak-stemmed plant that derives its support from climbing, twining, or creeping along a surface. E.g.紫藤、爬山虎、木香等     缺点：缺点：荫木类与林木类有重复，花木类与果木类有重复 4     Classification according to the usage of landscape trees in   landscape   area    一、一、 Specimen tree风景树（孤赏树，公园树）风景树（孤赏树，公园树）：A tree of special interest because of its shape or flower or fruit or foliage, placed in a position of prominence in the yard or park. 如南洋杉、日本金松、雪松、金钱松、龙柏、云杉、冷杉、紫杉、紫叶李、龙爪槐等。

 The five world famous park trees 世界五大公园树种世界五大公园树种:  雪松；金钱松；南洋杉；日本金松；巨杉      二、、Trees for shade庭荫树：庭荫树：a tree planted or valued chiefly for its shade from sunlight tree in yard or park - a tall perennial woody plant having a main trunk and branches forming a distinct elevated crown; includes both gymnosperms and angiosperms一般多为叶大荫浓的落叶乔木，在冬季人们需要阳光时落叶例如：梧桐、七叶树、槐、栾树、朴树、榉树、榕树、樟等n三、 street tree (trees for street planting)行道树：行道树：Street trees are located in the public space strip between the curb and sidewalk. They serve the dual purpose of providing its shade for people and vehicle and  street landscape. 落叶或常绿乔木均可作行道树，但必须具有抗逆性强、耐修剪、主干直、分枝点高等特点。

例如：悬铃木、槐、椴、七叶树、元宝枫、樟、银桦等n 国外五大行道树属：国外五大行道树属：银杏；悬铃木属；椴树属；七叶树属；鹅掌楸属.                                   四、四、Ornamental shrubs花灌木：花灌木：indicate shrubs or small arbors with beautiful flowers or colorful fruit planted in urban area. There are many ornamental shrubs widely planted in urban area. Their ornamental value is prominence. 例如：梅花、桃花、榆叶梅、连翘、丁香、月季等                   五、五、Vines 藤本类：藤本类：具有细长茎蔓的木质藤本植物它们可以攀缘或垂挂在各种支架上，有些可以直接吸附于垂直的墙壁上，他们不占或很少占用地面积应用形式灵活多样，是各种棚架、凉廊、栅栏、围篱、墙面、拱门、灯柱、山石、枯树等的绿化好材料对提高绿化质量，丰富园林景色，美化建筑立面等方面有独到之处。

如：紫藤、凌霄、络石、爬山虎、常春藤、薜（bi）荔、葡萄、金银花、铁线莲、素馨、木香、炮仗花等六六.Formal hedge trees 绿篱树种：绿篱树种：Hedge trees go close planting in rows, usually pruning them as regular shape. Their usages are:(1) Privacy and Boundary Definition: Shrubs are used to define the boundary lines of the property and to enclose the private garden area. Such plantings may be clipped or free-growing hedges or possibly informal shrub borders, where walls or fences are not appropriate or desired. The outdoor living area is an important part of a landscape composition, and privacy is a highly desirable feature of this area.(2)Screens and Backgrounds: Like trees and vines, shrubs are useful for screening undesirable views from within the property. Many shrubs maintain their branches and foliage from ground up and thus provide an effective screen. Frequently, taller shrubs, particularly evergreens, serve the dual purpose of providing a background for smaller shrubs, flower beds, and garden features and at the same time serving as a screen.  Walk and Driveway Accent:  Shrubs are used to emphasize the entrance to walks and driveways leading to the home. Generally, only low-spreading and dwarf forms are used for this purpose because vision should not be obstructed.  用作绿篱的树种，一般都是耐修剪，多分枝和生长较慢的常绿树种。

如：圆柏、侧柏、杜松、黄杨、大叶黄杨、女贞、珊瑚树等也有以观赏其花果为主而不加修整的自然式绿篱常用树种有：小檗、贴梗海棠、黄刺玫、珍珠梅、枸桔、木槿等                     七七.Ground cover plants木本地被植物：木本地被植物：A low-growing dense growth of woody plants, planted for ornamental purposes or to prevent soil erosion in areas where turf is difficult to grow, as in deep shade or on a steep slope. 如：铺地柏、爬翠柏 、匍地龙柏、平枝栒子、箬竹、金银花、爬山虎、常春藤等八八. .Foundation plantsFoundation plants基础植物基础植物: Choosing and locating plants around the outside walls of a home or a building are of paramount importance. The house is the chief feature of the landscape setting, so plantings near the foundation should harmonize with each other as well as complement the architectural design of the structure. For the most part, the plants should be easy to maintain, and the number of species should be limited to avoid striking contrasts of texture, form, and color, which may detract from the beauty of the home. Vines and ground cover plants are frequently used with shrubs to create the desired effect.九九.Rock garden plants岩石植物岩石植物 Rock garden planned around natural rock formations or rocks artificially arranged to simulate natural (often mountainous) conditions. The concept of rock gardens is believed to have been introduced from China and Japan into the Western world in the 17th; they have since gained wide popularity as an ideal method for the cultivation of mountain flora and for beautifying hilly, stony, or other awkward terrain. Rock plants usually have long roots that enable them to obtain moisture even when the surface is hot and dry. Low plants requiring well-drained conditions are suited to rock gardens.如：南天竹、枸杞、六月雪、竹类等                          十一十一. Fruit trees果木：果木：it is good way for improving economic  function of landscape trees if the plant design is reasonable. Fruit trees planted in garden or park usually are beautiful and easily manage and maintain. 如：枇杷、海棠、核桃、山里红、柿子等。

                      十二十二.Forest trees林木：林木：it is same as fruit tree for improving economic  function. They usually planted in out of way place (by-place),如:松树、栎类、毛竹等                          n十三十三.Indoor ornamental trees室内装饰树木：室内装饰树木：华南广东,与庭院结合在室内留一些阳光植物种植在室内，但阳光还是少，故需选择耐荫植物棕榈科植物除椰子、刺葵外都耐荫n 十四十四.Roof garden trees 屋顶花园植物：屋顶花园植物：重庆、广州建造屋顶花园多，挖水池，有雕塑，种草坪一般植物根系浅，30—40cm，最多100 cm；体量要轻如：木香、金银木、金银花、竹类、散尾葵等n十十.Poted plant and penjing(bonzai) plants 盆栽及盆景：盆栽及盆景：植物种植在盆中来观赏盆景要求植株古朴、叶小、生长缓慢、易造型如：榔榆、银杏、梅、日本五针松、棕竹等。

第四节第四节   按树木在园林结合生产中的主要作用分类按树木在园林结合生产中的主要作用分类                    一、果树类一、果树类              二、淀粉类（木本粮食植物类）：二、淀粉类（木本粮食植物类）：              三、油料树类（木本粮油植物类）：三、油料树类（木本粮油植物类）：              四、木本蔬菜类：四、木本蔬菜类：              五、药用树类（木本药用植物类）：五、药用树类（木本药用植物类）：              六、香料树类（木本香料植物类）：六、香料树类（木本香料植物类）：             七、用材树类：七、用材树类：              八、其他经济树类：八、其他经济树类：              九、观赏树类九、观赏树类Criteria of a fossil speciesPalaeontological species, mostly, are based on the morphology(形态) of the fossils. Same morphology Population Ecological character of population Geographical distribution The systematic grouping of organisms into categories on the basis of evolutionary or structural relationships between them natural classificationEvery organism on earth must get a unique name so that it can not be confused with some other organism. These names are in Latin or Greek, languages which are no longer spoken. Creatures are grouped by what they look like. This is not done in a willy-nilly way. Everyone has to agree on how it is done. A.Gymnosperm Angiosperm Monocots Dicots nThe Basis for Species Classification Plants belong to a taxonomic grouping of organisms (taxon) called the Plant Kingdom or Plantae. The Plant Kingdom is progressively subdivided into divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and then species. Species are often further divided into various types referred to as cultivar, forma, or variety. In a general sense, the plant family and lower taxons are those most useful to landscape horticulturists. A family is a group of related genera (or a single genus) that is separated from other families mainly by differences in the shape and position of their reproductive structures.  However, when members of a family are commonly as diverse as vine, shrub, and large tree, or have dramatically different environmental adaptation, the significance of taxonomic groupings can appear remote to many landscape students. The subdividing of families into genera and genera into species based on morphology poses similar problems. To make matters worse, many plants of different species readily hybridize to produce populations of fertile offspring (called hybrids). Despite obvious limitations in current taxonomic approaches, these classification methods provide important order to the incredibly diverse Plant Kingdom. 。