英语实践报告.doc

Given the limited understanding of water use in various regions, as well as actual reductions at home, the actual geographic changes in water use because of tourism remain somewhat uncertain. Exacerbating these findings is that tourists may often arrive during the dry season, when rainfall drops to a minimum and water availability is restricted (e.g. Eurostat, ; Gössling, ; WWF,). For instance, in the French Départment of Charente-Maritime, water use is reported to be 126 per cent higher on the coast and 260 per cent higher in the islands of Ré and Oléron in July/August than on annual average (IFEN, ). Strong seasonality in combination with arrival peaks during dry season might thus put considerable strain on available water resources, particularly in generally dry regions. This interrelationship is shown in Fig. 3 for Zanzibar, Tanzania where tourist arrivals are highest when rainfall drops to a minimum. This is the period when most water is needed by the tourist industry and recharge of the aquifers through rain is lowest. Similar relationships between water scarcity and tourist arrival peaks have been found in the Mediterranean(Eurostat, ). While overall water use thus increases in the dry season, per capita water use is likely to decline, as there are water uses that have to be maintained irrespective of guest numbers (gardens,cleaning, pools). A distinction between fixed and variable water use, the latter referring to water use that is related to occupancy rates (taking showers, toilet use, laundry), thus appears to be meaningful. Fig. 4 exemplifies water consumption and occupation rate ratios of hotels in Tunisia, indicating that higher occupation rates reduce averaged water consumption rates per tourist per day. Similar relationships were also found by Antakayali et al. (), who found considerably higher water use per guest occurred in low occupancy periods. In early summer months water use per guest exceeds 1000 L per guest per day, dropping to 400 L when occupancy rates are high. Given these findings, a last concern is whether tourism-related water abstractions are sustainable, and whether these interfere with other uses or users. Where tourism-related fresh water demand is significant, the sector can add considerable pressure on available fresh water resources, particularly when these are concentrated in regions with few or no fossil water resources, low aquifer renewal rates, and few or no surface water sources, such as many coastal zones and islands (e.g. Gössling, b; Rodriguez Diaz, Knox, & Weather head, ). In such areas, tourism-related water consumption may also compete with local demands. For instance, weighted average water use in villages on the east coast ofZanzibar was found to be in the order of 48 L per capita per day, whereas weighted average water use in accommodation in this area was 685 L per tourist per day (Gössling, ). Similar figures indicating higher water use by tourists than residents have also been reported for Lanzarote, Spain, where tourist water consumption is four times that of residents (Medeazza, ). Second home tourism has also been recognized as placing pressure on water supplies and water quality, potentially leading to conflicts between permanent residents and temporary visitors (Medina,1990; Müller, Hall, & Keen, ). In a study of Mayne Island, British Columbia, Thompson () found that permanent residents perceived that seasonal second home residents were decreasing the availability and sustainability of water resources (Langumier & Ricou, 1995).Competition for water also occurs between economic sectors, such as tourism and agriculture. In Spain, for instance, the value added to water by tourism can be 60 times higher than in the agricultural sector (Auernheimer & González, ; quoted in Downward & Taylor, ), putting tourism in a position to outcompete agriculture for water. Euro stat (: 9) reports that in the Mediterranean summer high season, use conflicts exist between agriculture, hydro-electricity production and household consumption, with tourist facilities sometimes being given priority in the supply of water. Even more serious can bewater use conflicts between countries. The combination of growing populations, demands of water for industry and tourism, and increasingly unpredictable water supply combined with pre-existing political and religious tensions makes the Middles East e Israel, Jordan, the Palestinian Authority, Egypt, and parts of Lebanon and Syria especially vulnerable to water security issues (Hall, Timothy, & Duval, ; Lipchin, Pallant,Saranga, & Amster, ): Thewater question is crucial in Israel, wherewater resources are particularly scarce. The massive use of surface water pumped from the Sea of Galilee has considerable environmental and social impacts, such as drying up of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, and tensions with neighbouring Jordan, which also depends on this resource (Eurostat, : 21). Even though not investigated in further detail in th。