chapter+4+from+word+to+text(新版）.ppt

1,Chapter Four From Word to Text,2,Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系3,Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: relations of position relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence,Syntactic relations （句法关系）,4,1.1 Relations of Position （位置关系）,For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object,5,Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example,,6,The boy kicked the ball *Boy the ball kicked the *The ball kicked the boy The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher,7,Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系） observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.,8,Word order is one of the basic ways to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.,9,1.2 Relation of Substitutability （替换关系）,The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The ______ smiles. man boy girl,10,It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set. strong man The tallest boy smiles. pretty girl yesterday. He went there last week. the day before.,,,,11,This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫） To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.,12,1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）,It means that words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.,13,Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.,14,2. Grammatical construction and its constituents,2.1 Grammatical Construction GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.,15,On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties. The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome. For instance, the different terms such as clausal type, phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively.,16,16,The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.,2018/12/12,LINGUISTICS,17,17,In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The + girl + is + giggling. It is the construction in this sense that can be analysed into constituents.,2018/12/12,LINGUISTICS,18,2.2 Immediate Constituents (直接成分),Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP) the girl ate the apple (S),19,19,Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.,2018/12/12,LINGUISTICS,20,20,,A (Sentence) B C The girl ate the apple,,,2018/12/12,LINGUISTICS,21,21,This tree contains three Nodes. The top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C. B and C are daughters of the same mother, and so we refer to them as sister nodes. The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order.,2018/12/12,LINGUISTICS,22,22,T。