第二章答案(20220115141313).pdf

一.Define the following 1.meaning:meaning is something that people necessarily show great concern in life. 2.conversationalimplicature: Conversationalimplicature,non-conventional implicature called by Grice the “conversational implicature” is a kind of implicature ,which is decided by the general characteristics and principles of conversation ,rather than the conventional meaning of words. 3.conventional/non-conventionalimplicatures:conventional implicature which is close to “ meaning of saying” is decideed by the conventional meaning of words.non-conventional implicature called by Grice the “conversational implicature” is a kind of implicature ,which is decided by the general characteristics and principles of conversation ,rather than the conventional meaning of words. 4.particularized conversational implicature generalized conversational implicatures Generalized implicatures, Neo-Griceans have tended to focus on generalized conversational implicatures,which are “ normally(in the absence of special circumstances)carried by the use of a certain form of words. Particularized implicatures:Levension treats generalized implicatures,as assigned by default to all utterance of this type,and contextually canceled only in special circumstances;particularized implicatures ,which depend on” special features of context ” can not be assigned by default. Grice refers to highly context-dependent implicatures,as particularized conversational ,implicatures ;while he argued that implicatures which are normally conveyed regardless of the context are generalized conversational implicatures. 5.stereotypical relations: stereotypical relations are the relations inherent inn things themselves .they can be within a sentence and out side a sentence. 6. cognitive context: cognitive context refers to not only the external environment ,the text preceding or following an utterance ,but also the expectations about the future,scientific hypotheses,religious beliefs ,anecdotal memories,general cultural assumptions,beliefs about the mental state of the speaker and so on. 7.loose talk: figurative language is considered as “ a kind of loose talk ” . Loose talk needn ? t take truthfulness into consideration. Loose talk can make people naturally associate things in the real world with knowledge in human being? s minds. 8.disambiguation: in the case of sense selection ,the candidates are supplied by the linguistic system itself. Disambiguation generally cannot be achieved independent of consideration of the speaker? s intention,hence of pragmatic principle of maxims. 9.reference assignment: Relevance theorists argue that a wide notion of context(that is ,one that goes well beyond merely specifying the speaker,time and location of the utterance)and a consideration of the speaker ? s intention have to be required in determining values of those demonstratives and pronouns. 10.explicature/implicature inference Sperber and Wilson hold that there are two types of inferences in utterance: explicature inference and implicature inference,and they give equal attention to the two different inferring processes ,both of which are non-demonstrative. They are loose inferences people make in daily life . That is ,they are made from one premise to another. Their presupposition are not surely true or complete. 11.scalar quantity implicature/clausal quantity implicature Scalar Quantity Implicatures mean:alinguistic scale consist of a set of linguistic alternates ,or contrastive expression s of the same grammatical category,which can be arranged in a linear order by degree of informativeness or semantic length. Clausal Quantity Implicatures mean : If S assert some complex expression p which (i)contains an embedded sentence q;(ii)p neither entails nor presupposes q;(iii)there is an alternative express r of roughly equal brevity which contains q such such that r does entail or presupposes q.Then assert p rather than r ,s implicates that he doesn? t know whether q is true or false, i.e.he implicates Pq&Pq. 二.Answer the following questions 1.What is “meaning ” ?“ Meaning”is something that people necessarily show great concern in life。

Meaning ,being central to the study of communication ,has been discussed by philosophers ,logicians ,and linguistic for thousands of years ,from naming theory to conceptualizing view;from contextualism to behaviorism ; from meaning as truth condition to various types of meaning,including conceptual meaning ,cannotative meaning social meaning ,effective meaning , and stylistic meaning ,ect. But the question of “ what ,meaning ,is in nature” ? Is really different to answer. 2. What is the relation between meaning and intention? Meaning and intention are closely related to each other but function at different levels in communication in a complementary way.Actually ,it is quite common that a speaker may men a lot more than what is said explicitly. 3. Please introduce Classic-Gricean Theory? Grice proposed the Co-operative principle . This princ。