英语语言学语言决定论？文化强势说!.PPT

语言决定论？语言决定论？文化强势说！文化强势说！21 Sapir-Whorf假说假说1.1此假说的主要内容有两点：此假说的主要内容有两点：（（1）语言决定论，即主张语言的结构决定思）语言决定论，即主张语言的结构决定思维的结构，语言支配思维，决定人的认识；维的结构，语言支配思维，决定人的认识；（（2）语言的关联性，即说不同语言的人有不）语言的关联性，即说不同语言的人有不同的思维结构，不同的语言有不同的决定认同的思维结构，不同的语言有不同的决定认识的方式识的方式31.2 Sapir-Whorf假说的验证假说的验证1.2.11.2.1编码能力与再认编码能力与再认编码能力与再认编码能力与再认 编码能力是指语言符号的效力（可用性）有些颜色是编码能力是指语言符号的效力（可用性）有些颜色是编码能力是指语言符号的效力（可用性）有些颜色是编码能力是指语言符号的效力（可用性）有些颜色是很容易编码的，例如光亮的纯红在英语中，这种颜色可很容易编码的，例如光亮的纯红在英语中，这种颜色可很容易编码的，例如光亮的纯红在英语中，这种颜色可很容易编码的，例如光亮的纯红在英语中，这种颜色可以用一个单音节的词来编码，所以人们能很快地说出它的以用一个单音节的词来编码，所以人们能很快地说出它的以用一个单音节的词来编码，所以人们能很快地说出它的以用一个单音节的词来编码，所以人们能很快地说出它的名字名字名字名字“ “redred” ”；同时，许多人会一致地用同一个词；同时，许多人会一致地用同一个词；同时，许多人会一致地用同一个词；同时，许多人会一致地用同一个词“ “redred” ”来命名这种颜色；还有，当人们在下次再看到这种颜色时，来命名这种颜色；还有，当人们在下次再看到这种颜色时，来命名这种颜色；还有，当人们在下次再看到这种颜色时，来命名这种颜色；还有，当人们在下次再看到这种颜色时，也会倾向于对它说出这个名称。

但是，对于那种梨核内壁也会倾向于对它说出这个名称但是，对于那种梨核内壁也会倾向于对它说出这个名称但是，对于那种梨核内壁也会倾向于对它说出这个名称但是，对于那种梨核内壁的的的的“ “绿褐色绿褐色绿褐色绿褐色” ”的颜色来说，情况就不同了，它是一种很不的颜色来说，情况就不同了，它是一种很不的颜色来说，情况就不同了，它是一种很不的颜色来说，情况就不同了，它是一种很不容易编码的颜色因此，可以说，前一语言符号的可用性容易编码的颜色因此，可以说，前一语言符号的可用性容易编码的颜色因此，可以说，前一语言符号的可用性容易编码的颜色因此，可以说，前一语言符号的可用性大，后一语言符号的可用性小也就是它们的编码能力是大，后一语言符号的可用性小也就是它们的编码能力是大，后一语言符号的可用性小也就是它们的编码能力是大，后一语言符号的可用性小也就是它们的编码能力是不同的 编码能力与思维的某种特定的尺度，即再认应该是有关编码能力与思维的某种特定的尺度，即再认应该是有关编码能力与思维的某种特定的尺度，即再认应该是有关编码能力与思维的某种特定的尺度，即再认应该是有关的人们对高度可编码的颜色如红色的再认，是十分精确的。

人们对高度可编码的颜色如红色的再认，是十分精确的人们对高度可编码的颜色如红色的再认，是十分精确的人们对高度可编码的颜色如红色的再认，是十分精确的；而对低度编码的颜色如梨核内部的颜色的再认并不十的；而对低度编码的颜色如梨核内部的颜色的再认并不十的；而对低度编码的颜色如梨核内部的颜色的再认并不十的；而对低度编码的颜色如梨核内部的颜色的再认并不十分精确简而言之，语言中差异与思维中的差异是有联系分精确简而言之，语言中差异与思维中的差异是有联系分精确简而言之，语言中差异与思维中的差异是有联系分精确简而言之，语言中差异与思维中的差异是有联系的41.2.21.2.2语言和分类语言和分类语言和分类语言和分类 卡罗尔等研究那伐鹤族儿童对客体进行分类的方式在卡罗尔等研究那伐鹤族儿童对客体进行分类的方式在卡罗尔等研究那伐鹤族儿童对客体进行分类的方式在卡罗尔等研究那伐鹤族儿童对客体进行分类的方式在实验中，他们总共给儿童实验中，他们总共给儿童实验中，他们总共给儿童实验中，他们总共给儿童1010对客体，每次给一对，如带色对客体，每次给一对，如带色对客体，每次给一对，如带色对客体，每次给一对，如带色的木块，木棍或一段绳子等。

每一对客体有两种属性是彼的木块，木棍或一段绳子等每一对客体有两种属性是彼的木块，木棍或一段绳子等每一对客体有两种属性是彼的木块，木棍或一段绳子等每一对客体有两种属性是彼此不同的，如黄色的绳子和蓝色的棍子，然后，再给儿童此不同的，如黄色的绳子和蓝色的棍子，然后，再给儿童此不同的，如黄色的绳子和蓝色的棍子，然后，再给儿童此不同的，如黄色的绳子和蓝色的棍子，然后，再给儿童第三个客体，如蓝色的绳子，并要求这些儿童指出，上述第三个客体，如蓝色的绳子，并要求这些儿童指出，上述第三个客体，如蓝色的绳子，并要求这些儿童指出，上述第三个客体，如蓝色的绳子，并要求这些儿童指出，上述那一对客体中，哪一个成员与新的第三个客体相一致在那一对客体中，哪一个成员与新的第三个客体相一致在那一对客体中，哪一个成员与新的第三个客体相一致在那一对客体中，哪一个成员与新的第三个客体相一致在那伐鹤语里，根据动词的客体是刚性的（如一根棍子）还那伐鹤语里，根据动词的客体是刚性的（如一根棍子）还那伐鹤语里，根据动词的客体是刚性的（如一根棍子）还那伐鹤语里，根据动词的客体是刚性的（如一根棍子）还是柔性的（如一根绳子），使用不同的动词词尾。

所以，是柔性的（如一根绳子），使用不同的动词词尾所以，是柔性的（如一根绳子），使用不同的动词词尾所以，是柔性的（如一根绳子），使用不同的动词词尾所以，预计那伐鹤族儿童会把黄绳子同蓝绳子分在一起，因为研预计那伐鹤族儿童会把黄绳子同蓝绳子分在一起，因为研预计那伐鹤族儿童会把黄绳子同蓝绳子分在一起，因为研预计那伐鹤族儿童会把黄绳子同蓝绳子分在一起，因为研究者认为语言中重要的东西是会反映在思维中的究者认为语言中重要的东西是会反映在思维中的究者认为语言中重要的东西是会反映在思维中的究者认为语言中重要的东西是会反映在思维中的 说那伐鹤语的一组儿童，把蓝绳子和黄绳子分在一起，说那伐鹤语的一组儿童，把蓝绳子和黄绳子分在一起，说那伐鹤语的一组儿童，把蓝绳子和黄绳子分在一起，说那伐鹤语的一组儿童，把蓝绳子和黄绳子分在一起，而说英语的儿童则把蓝绳子和蓝棍子分在一起这就是说，而说英语的儿童则把蓝绳子和蓝棍子分在一起这就是说，而说英语的儿童则把蓝绳子和蓝棍子分在一起这就是说，而说英语的儿童则把蓝绳子和蓝棍子分在一起这就是说，前者是根据形状来分类的；后者是根据颜色来分类的这前者是根据形状来分类的；后者是根据颜色来分类的。

这前者是根据形状来分类的；后者是根据颜色来分类的这前者是根据形状来分类的；后者是根据颜色来分类的这一研究结果说明，语言确实影响着儿童的认知方式一研究结果说明，语言确实影响着儿童的认知方式一研究结果说明，语言确实影响着儿童的认知方式一研究结果说明，语言确实影响着儿童的认知方式51.2.3形状名称对认知的影响形状名称对认知的影响 实验用的刺激是一些画有各种图片，被试分为甲乙实验用的刺激是一些画有各种图片，被试分为甲乙两组给两组被试呈现同一张图片，但分别给予两个两组给两组被试呈现同一张图片，但分别给予两个不同的客体名称；然后，要求两组被试分别重画这些不同的客体名称；然后，要求两组被试分别重画这些图形比如说，给被试呈现的图片画的是，中间一条图形比如说，给被试呈现的图片画的是，中间一条短直线连着的两个圆圈给甲组被试呈现该刺激时，短直线连着的两个圆圈给甲组被试呈现该刺激时，告诉他们说告诉他们说“ “眼镜眼镜” ”；给乙组被试呈现该刺激时，告；给乙组被试呈现该刺激时，告诉他们说诉他们说“ “哑铃哑铃” ”稍后，要求被试重画这个图形稍后，要求被试重画这个图形结果发现，甲组被试画出来的图中间的线是弯的，与结果发现，甲组被试画出来的图中间的线是弯的，与原来的图相比更像一副眼镜了；乙组被试画出来的图原来的图相比更像一副眼镜了；乙组被试画出来的图中间的线是粗而直的，比原来的图更像一副哑铃了。

中间的线是粗而直的，比原来的图更像一副哑铃了 61.3 Whorf 假说的问题与不足假说的问题与不足 1.3.1 1.3.1 夸大语言的功能，颠倒语言和文化的关系夸大语言的功能，颠倒语言和文化的关系夸大语言的功能，颠倒语言和文化的关系夸大语言的功能，颠倒语言和文化的关系 在心理学上，无数不争的事实已经证明，认知具有前语言阶段（例如儿在心理学上，无数不争的事实已经证明，认知具有前语言阶段（例如儿在心理学上，无数不争的事实已经证明，认知具有前语言阶段（例如儿在心理学上，无数不争的事实已经证明，认知具有前语言阶段（例如儿童）认知的哲学基础是与客观相结合的经验现实主义其经验源于人与童）认知的哲学基础是与客观相结合的经验现实主义其经验源于人与童）认知的哲学基础是与客观相结合的经验现实主义其经验源于人与童）认知的哲学基础是与客观相结合的经验现实主义其经验源于人与自然和人与人的相互作用换句话说，认知是语言的基础，而作为认知两自然和人与人的相互作用换句话说，认知是语言的基础，而作为认知两自然和人与人的相互作用换句话说，认知是语言的基础，而作为认知两自然和人与人的相互作用。

换句话说，认知是语言的基础，而作为认知两大底座之一的文化，也就成了语言不可缺少的基础之一大底座之一的文化，也就成了语言不可缺少的基础之一大底座之一的文化，也就成了语言不可缺少的基础之一大底座之一的文化，也就成了语言不可缺少的基础之一 语言语言语言语言 认知认知认知认知 人与社会人与社会人与社会人与社会 人与自然人与自然人与自然人与自然（社会的，文化的）（社会的，文化的）（社会的，文化的）（社会的，文化的） （物理的，生物的）（物理的，生物的）（物理的，生物的）（物理的，生物的） 7 1.3.2 解释力有限解释力有限 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf假说只在词汇和语义方面具有一定的假说只在词汇和语义方面具有一定的假说只在词汇和语义方面具有一定的假说只在词汇和语义方面具有一定的解释力。

该假说的提出是基于对霍皮语（解释力该假说的提出是基于对霍皮语（解释力该假说的提出是基于对霍皮语（解释力该假说的提出是基于对霍皮语（HopiHopi）词汇）词汇）词汇）词汇的研究在霍皮语中，的研究在霍皮语中，的研究在霍皮语中，的研究在霍皮语中，“ “雷电雷电雷电雷电” ” “ “波涛波涛波涛波涛” ” “ “火焰火焰火焰火焰” ”等都是动词，进而认为不同语言中有不同的范畴和概等都是动词，进而认为不同语言中有不同的范畴和概等都是动词，进而认为不同语言中有不同的范畴和概等都是动词，进而认为不同语言中有不同的范畴和概念，再推论出不同语言使用者对客观世界的不同分析念，再推论出不同语言使用者对客观世界的不同分析念，再推论出不同语言使用者对客观世界的不同分析念，再推论出不同语言使用者对客观世界的不同分析作者只分析到此作者只分析到此作者只分析到此作者只分析到此众所周知．对语言的研究必须涉及众所周知．对语言的研究必须涉及语音、语义、语法、语用等诸多方面．而任何片面的语音、语义、语法、语用等诸多方面．而任何片面的涉足都不足以成就一个具有很强解释力、说服力的学涉足都不足以成就一个具有很强解释力、说服力的学说。

由于该学说没有验证在语用、语音方面的解释能说由于该学说没有验证在语用、语音方面的解释能力，因而它的理论基础的解释力也将受到很大限制力，因而它的理论基础的解释力也将受到很大限制81.3.3 无法解释语言变异现象 Sapir-whorf hypothesis忽略了语言的历时变化，无忽略了语言的历时变化，无法解释英语语音的变化以及其它发音特征的出现我法解释英语语音的变化以及其它发音特征的出现我们知道们知道,任何语言任何语言(包括英语包括英语)都会在其发展过程中不断都会在其发展过程中不断发展变化根据发展变化根据Sapir-whorf hypothesis，这种变化会，这种变化会影响人们对宇宙的看法．也就是说．英语双元音影响人们对宇宙的看法．也就是说．英语双元音lunar／／lju：：na／／~为／为／lu：：n3／会影响人们对月亮的看法／会影响人们对月亮的看法．或者说人们认为今天的月亮已经不是几百年前英国．或者说人们认为今天的月亮已经不是几百年前英国上空的月亮吗上空的月亮吗?科学的解释应该是：该现象源于人们科学的解释应该是：该现象源于人们生活节奏对语音的影响，生活节奏的快慢与发音时舌生活节奏对语音的影响，生活节奏的快慢与发音时舌部和口腔的张弛度，开口度以及发音时间的长短都密部和口腔的张弛度，开口度以及发音时间的长短都密切相关。

切相关一味追求物质利益的观点仍然主宰着西方一味追求物质利益的观点仍然主宰着西方社会，其不幸的后果是生活节奏的不断加快社会，其不幸的后果是生活节奏的不断加快”91.3.41.3.4．语言不同并不表明人们对宇宙的看法不同 科学的历史证明，人对宇宙的看法几经变化，但并不是语言引起的．科学的传播也不受语言界限的束缚 综上所述．Sapir—Whof假说虽然得到了语言学界和社会学界的承认．甚至有人高呼“它以时代精神重建了被描写语言学所异化的语言本体论”不可否认．该假说使人们更深刻地感觉到了语言与思维和文化的关系．但是否说语言真的对人们的思维具有直接和决定性的影响呢? 人类在追寻语言与思维、文化的关系中哪一方更本原．更具有原推动力的问题时．形成了诸多观点很多语言学家认为，尽管语言与文化的关系很复杂，主体上占优势的却是文化，并且它在很大程度上影响了语言的结构2 文化影响语言．语言差异源于文化差异 文化作为语言的底座．在交际环境中是作为行为模式的深层结构，规范和制约交际语言的不同的文化在一定程度上影响着语言的结构 语言结构不但与文化有关，语言的使用形式也跟文化密切相关．因此．文化相对于语言具有强势作用。

102.1 2.1 文化差异对思维模式的影响文化差异对思维模式的影响文化差异对思维模式的影响文化差异对思维模式的影响n 古代汉民族思维的一个主要特点是它的整体性这种有机整体思维模式在古代汉语中的体现就是语句结构的散点铺排运动所以综合法是汉民族常用的思维方法n 西方民族的思维的一个重要特点是扩张性他们注重自然时空，而且偏重于空间的真实性n 这两种孑然不同的思维模式导致了汉英句法结构上差别很大具体表现为：汉语句子的心理视点不是焦点透视．而是散点的平铺这种独特的视角着眼于内容完整的组织方法，用一个个语言块(词组)的流动铺排局势来完成内容表达的要求形散而神聚”并通过“神”来统“形”是对汉语句法结构的本质的概括英语句子却以限定动词为中心．名词间彼此明确相互关系这种句子格局的心理视点是一种焦点透视．即以动词为核心，焦点透视周边的词，与其它词互为支撑，相辅相成．内部组织呈严格的空间几何型112.2 2.2 文化差异导致交际模式的不同文化差异导致交际模式的不同 2.2.1 2.2.1 词汇词汇 词汇是语言的基本构成要素．是语言大系统赖以存在的支柱也是交际模式的核心成员因此文化差异在该层面上表现也最为突出，涉及面也最为广泛 。

中国封建社会里男尊女卑占据首要位置 这也促使了汉语中的表亲关系泾渭分明，表兄表弟，表姐表妹，区别甚严，既要说出性别，还要分清长幼而英文却笼而统之，都称为Cousin，因为在西方，男女平等，社会地位相当，也就没必要这样细分 2.2.2 语用推理 语用推理主要体现在以下几个方面：参与言语时间的方式．特定的言语行为以及其实现方式，话题的提出和展开以及话语的调节方式中国文化强调人的社会性．强调社会群体对个人的约束，不突出个人和个性．在语言上常倾向于谦虚、含蓄这与西方社会以自我为中心．强调独立的个性，推崇个人的成就孑然不同122.3 2.3 文化差异导致对语言技能的评价差异 不同的文化对社会成员的语言的技能评价也不一样有的文化奉行“沉默是金”的策略， 崇尚语言简洁、明了 ，而有的文化却以为语言技巧是一个人的智慧和能力的表现受这种文化差异的影响，布隆迪人在学英语时,常常趋向于大量堆彻词汇，娓娓道来，完全忽略了西方“Silence is gold，speech is silver”的理念中国人长期受儒家思想的熏陶，严格遵守各类封建礼节，三纲五常形形色色的条条款款、框框架架禁锢着人们的思想．使我们的古人几乎形成了单一的、纯粹的“忠孝思想”。

汉语的言简意赅．结构严谨，正是这种思想在语言上的凝固．它的实质是中国文化的浓缩和再现2.4 文化差异导致两种文化致思途径的差异 汉语表地点、时间、修饰中心词的词序是由大到小，由远及近，由广及窄英语的顺序则完全相反 中国北京海淀区学院路15号 一九八八年十二月二十六日上午九点半133 结论结论 文化影响语言，语言反映文化．这是人们普遍接受的道理由于“文化”表征着传统和信仰，所以我们一出生就浸润其中．我们的一切行为包括语言也因此受这种文化制约文化潜移默化地影响着我们的思想，我们却生活在思想规范之中而语言则是人们思想规范的体现在某个场合说什么话，或想说什么话．常常依从文化习俗这是任何语言的特色同时文化又无时无刻不在影响语言．使语言为了适应文化发展的需要而变得更加精确和缜密而不同的文化群体又趋向于产生不同的语言结构也就是说，语言的差异源于文化的差异．并通过文化得以表现141516“Language is a means of verbal communication.”n nIt is instrumental in that communicating It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. n nIt is social and conventional in that It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006)173. Design Features of Languagen nLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. 18Human language is ‘unique’n nArbitrariness n nDuality n nCreativity n nDisplacement 193.1 Arbitrarines n nSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning n nArbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:n nThe dog barks The dog barks wow wowwow wow in English but in English but “ “汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪” ” in Chinese. in Chinese. 20n nArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. n nHe came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.n nHe sat down and came in.He sat down and came in.n nHe sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.n nThe link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.213.2 Duality n nThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:n nPrimary units Primary units ‘ ‘wordswords’ ’ (meaningful) consist of (meaningful) consist of secondary units secondary units ‘ ‘soundssounds’ ’ (meaningless). (meaningless).22n nHierarchy of language: stratification as ‘the infinite use of finite means’.n nSounds > syllables > morphemes > words Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discoursessentences/utterances > texts/discourses233.3 Creativity n nLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. n nWords can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. 24n nBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. n nBecause of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. 25n nThe recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance:n nHe bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was written by a was written by a teacher teacher whowho taught in a school taught in a school whichwhich was was known for its graduates known for its graduates whowho ... ...263.4 Displacement n nHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. n nThus, we can refer to Confucius, or the Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us. second is situated far away from us. 27n nAnimal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. n nHuman language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. 28n nThe honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it. n nA dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days. n nOur language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.29n nDisplacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. 304. Origin of language n nThe ‘Divine’ origin:n n“ “In the beginning was the In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.God, and the Word was God.” ” (Gospel, John 1: 1)(Gospel, John 1: 1)31n n“ “And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to they have all one language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.which they have imagined to do.” ” (Genesis, 11: 6) (Genesis, 11: 6)324.1 The “bow-wow” theoryn nIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. n nOnomatopoeicOnomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the degree of resemblance they different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. express with the natural sounds. n nThis theory lacks supportive evidence. 334.2 The “pooh-pooh” theoryn nIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections. n nWhat makes the theory problematic is that there What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of interjections in is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. almost all languages. n nBesides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Oops Oh, Ah, Oops bear little relationship with the sound system of bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.a language and therefore are not good evidence.344.3 The “yo-he-ho” theoryn nAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. n nWe do have prosodic use of We do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages, but rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are far different rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present from language in its present sense. The theory is again at sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.most a speculation.35n nThe by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. n nOne thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts. 365. Functions of language n nLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. n nThey summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.37n nFor Jakobson, language is above all for communication. n nWhile for many people, the While for many people, the purpose of communication is purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of even the primary goal of communication. communication. 38n nIn his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:n nspeaker, addressee, context, message, code, speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.contact.n nIn conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: 39n nreferential (to convey message and information),n npoetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),n nemotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),n nconative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), n nphatic (to establish communion with others)n nmetalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).40n nThey correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code respectively. n nJakobson's views of the functions of language are still of great importance.41ContextREFERENTIALAddresserEMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives and vocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)42n nHalliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. n nIdeational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.43n nIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development: n nInstrumentalInstrumentaln nRegulatoryRegulatoryn nRepresentationalRepresentationaln nInteractionalInteractionaln nPersonalPersonaln nHeuristicHeuristicn nImaginativeImaginative44n nStill other classifications employ different categories and use different terms, but all share a lot in common about the basic functions of language. n nBelow is a summary of the major functions of Below is a summary of the major functions of language. language. 455.1 Informative functionn nLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language. n nIt is also called It is also called ideationalideational function in the function in the framework of functional grammar. framework of functional grammar. 46n nHalliday notes that n n“ “Language serves for the expression of Language serves for the expression of ‘ ‘contentcontent’ ’: that is, of the speaker's experience of : that is, of the speaker's experience of the real world, including the inner world of his the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. ... In serving this function, own consciousness. ... In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our them in any other way than that which our language suggests to uslanguage suggests to us” ”. .475.2 Interpersonal function n nBy far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.n nIn the framework of functional grammar, the interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. 48n nFor example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 49n nAttached to the interpersonal function is its function of expressing identity. For example, n nthe chanting of a crowd at a football match, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, n nthe shouting of names or slogans at public the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, meetings, n nthe stage-managed audience reactions to TV the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows game shows n nThey all signal who we are and where we They all signal who we are and where we belong. belong. 50n nLanguage marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and distance.51n nThe interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various other terms as in the following performative, emotive, expressive and phatic functions of language. They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal function.525.3 Performative functionn nThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics (Chapter 8). For example, n nI now declare the meeting open. I now declare the meeting open. n nI bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. 53n nThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. n nThe kind of language employed in performative The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.ritualized.54n nFor example, in Chinese when For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are the host or the people present are likely to say likely to say 岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安 as a means as a means of controlling the invisible forces of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely. affect their lives adversely. n nThe performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.555.4 Emotive functionn nThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. n nIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. n nGod, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. Oh. 56n nIt is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. n nFor example, a man may say For example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch! after after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter mutter DamnDamn when realizing that he has when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. forgotten an appointment. 57n nExclamations such as Man! Oh boy! and Hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a person's own feelings. n nSuch expressive utterances can also be a Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another's expressive use of reinforce one another's expressive use of language to show their solidarity.language to show their solidarity.585.5 Phatic communion n nPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. For example,n nMrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. n nMrs. Q: Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.n nMrs. P: Mrs. P: Thank you.Thank you.59n nWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. n nRitual exchanges about health or weather such Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as as Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayGood morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open if it should channel of communication is open if it should be needed. be needed. 60n nDifferent cultures have different topics of phatic communion. n nAccording to David Crystal, the According to David Crystal, the weather is not a universal weather is not a universal conversation filler as the English conversation filler as the English might like to think. might like to think. n nRundi women (in Burundi, Central Rundi women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, routinely Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say and politely say “ “I must go home I must go home now, or my husband will beat me.now, or my husband will beat me.” ” 61n nBroadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects. n nWe have to learn a large repertoire of such We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages if we are to interact comfortably with usages if we are to interact comfortably with different people. different people. 625.6 Recreational function n nThe recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. n nHowever, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting. 63n nIn the Latin and Islamic worlds as well as in some areas of China, there is widespread use of verbal dueling, in which one singer begins a song of usually few lines and challenges his opponent to continue the content or provide a rejoinder in a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. n nSuch verbal duels may last for a few Such verbal duels may last for a few hours and is performed for the sheer hours and is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language. joy of playing on language. 64n nTo take one example, the well-known movie《《刘三姐刘三姐》》features a scene of “对歌对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.65n nIf you observe a children’s play, you will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: n nthe repetitive rhythms help to control the game, the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it. and the children plainly take great delight in it. Adults also have their way to appreciate Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. language for its own sake. 66n nFor instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. n nVery close here to Jakobson's poetic function.Very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.675.7 Metalingual function n nOur language can be used to talk about itself. n nTo organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where they are and where they are going. 68n nFor instance, instead of saying n nThe lion chased the unicorn The lion chased the unicorn all round the town, all round the town, n nthey say n nAll around the town the lion All around the town the lion chased the unicorn. chased the unicorn. A unicorn69n nThis is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in functional grammar.n nIt makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.human.706. What is Linguistics?n nThe scientific study of human languagen nAims of linguistic theory:n nWhat is knowledge of language? (What is knowledge of language? (CompetenceCompetence) )n nHow is knowledge of language acquired? How is knowledge of language acquired? ( (AcquisitionAcquisition) )n nHow is knowledge of language put to use? How is knowledge of language put to use? ( (PerformancePerformance/ /languagelanguage processingprocessing) )71n nA grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s language:n nPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the (the sounds and the sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)n nLexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)dictionary)n nMorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)n nSyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on well-formedness of sentences)the constraints on well-formedness of sentences)n nSemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and sentences)(the meaning of words and sentences)727. Main branches of linguisticsn nPhoneticsn nPhonologyn nMorphologyn nSyntaxn nSemanticsn nPragmatics737.1 Phoneticsn nPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.74n nWe can approach it on various levels. n nAt one level, speech is a matter of anatomy and At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy and physiology. We can study organs such as physiology. We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech. production of speech. n nAt another level, we can focus on the speech At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of sounds. This is the domain of articulatory articulatory phoneticsphonetics. . 75n nWe can also investigate the properties of the sound waves — acoustic phonetics. n nAs speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave — auditory phonetics. 767.2 Phonology n nPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. n nA A phonemephoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. sound that can signal a difference in meaning. 777.3 Morphology n nMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. n nAlthough many people think of words as the Although many people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of a languagebasic meaningful elements of a language，，，，many words can be broken down into still many words can be broken down into still smaller units, called smaller units, called morphemesmorphemes. . 78n nMorphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word. n nAs morphemes are pairings of sounds with As morphemes are pairings of sounds with meanings, there are many complexities meanings, there are many complexities involved, forming a new field by the name involved, forming a new field by the name morphophonologymorphophonology. . 797.4 Syntax n nSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. n nThe form or structure of a sentence is governed The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence between words, word classes and other sentence elements. elements. 80n nWe know that words are organized into structures more than just word order. n nThe children watched [the firework from the hill The children watched [the firework from the hill ]. ].n nThe children watched [the firework ] [from the The children watched [the firework ] [from the hill ].hill ].n nThe chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat. 817.5 Semantics n nSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. n nIt is not only concerned with meanings of words It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. morphemes and sentences. 82n nThe following are what the key concepts look like: n nsemantic componentssemantic componentsn ndenotation of wordsdenotation of wordsn nsense relationssense relations between words such as between words such as antonymyantonymy and and synonymysynonymyn nsense relationssense relations between sentences such as between sentences such as entailmententailment and and presuppositionpresupposition and others. and others.837.6 Pragmatics n nPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. n nIn other words, pragmatics is concerned with In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally than with the way language is internally structured.structured.84n nIt regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions. n nSome key concepts such as reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles may appear commonsensical, yet pragmatics is just about one of the most promising fields of linguistic studies. 85n nTake conversation for example. n nSince language is transmitted primarily via the Since language is transmitted primarily via the speech mode, pragmatic rules govern a number speech mode, pragmatic rules govern a number of conversational interactions, such as of conversational interactions, such as sequential organizationsequential organization, , repair of errorsrepair of errors, , rolerole and and speech actsspeech acts. . n nOrganization of conversations includes taking Organization of conversations includes taking turns, opening, maintaining and closing a turns, opening, maintaining and closing a conversation, establishing and maintaining a conversation, establishing and maintaining a topic etc. topic etc. 868. Macrolinguistics n nLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. n nOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. 87n nAlthough Saussure's goal was to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines, with its coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with other sciences. n nThe central goal of describing the underlying The central goal of describing the underlying system remains: this is the province of general, system remains: this is the province of general, descriptive linguistics. descriptive linguistics. 88n nBut since language has both individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists among others. n nTherefore it is not surprising that we have some Therefore it is not surprising that we have some branches of branches of macrolinguisticsmacrolinguistics that show an that show an interdisciplinary nature from their very names: interdisciplinary nature from their very names: 898.1 Psycholinguistics n nPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. n nIt also studies language development in the It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language child, such as the theories of language acquisition, biological foundations of language, acquisition, biological foundations of language, and a profound aspectand a profound aspect——the relationship the relationship between language and cognition.between language and cognition.908.2 Sociolinguistics n nSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. n nAn umbrella term which covers a variety of An umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. the social characteristics of its users. 918.3 Anthropological linguistics n nAnthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork when anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages. n nIn contrast with other linguists, then, In contrast with other linguists, then, anthropological linguists are interested anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. unwritten languages. 92n nBecause an unwritten language must be heard in order to be studied, it does not leave any traces once its speakers died off. n nAnthropological linguists must begin in the Anthropological linguists must begin in the present, with comparisons of contemporary present, with comparisons of contemporary languages. languages. n nThen they may draw inferences about the kinds Then they may draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have occurred of change in language that may have occurred in the past and that may account for similarities in the past and that may account for similarities and differences observed in the present. and differences observed in the present. 938.4 Computational linguistics n nComputational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages). n nTo this field, linguistics contributes an To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use. descriptions of language structure and use. 94n nSome current application areas include translating from one language to another (Machine Translation), storing and finding relevant documents in large collections of text (Corpus Linguistics and Information Retrieval), and carrying out various forms of computer mediated communication. 959. Important distinctions in linguistics n nDescriptive vs. prescriptive n nSynchronic vs. diachronicn nLangue & parolen nCompetence and performance969.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive n nDon't say X.n nPeople don't say X.n nThe first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. n nThe distinction lies in prescribing how things The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.ought to be and describing how things are.97n nThe reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two types of rules is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character, e.g. n nYou should never use a double-negative; You should never use a double-negative; n nYou should not split the infinitive; etc. You should not split the infinitive; etc. 98Humorous grammar rulesJJNever end a sentence with a preposition.JJAnd don't start a sentence with a conjunction. JJIt is wrong to ever split an infinitive.JJAvoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat.)JJAlso, always avoid annoying alliteration.JJNo sentence fragments.99n nIn the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. n nThe grammarians tried to lay down rules for the The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. over usage once and for all. n nSome usages were prescribed to be learned by Some usages were prescribed to be learned by heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether. heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether. It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.100n nThese attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. n nThe nature of linguistics as a science The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.instead of prescription.1019.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic n nA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. n nDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. 1029.3 Langue & parole n nSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. 103n nWhile parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, the linguist's proper object is the langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual by his upbringing in society and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.1049.4 Competence and performance n nThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965). n nA language user's underlying A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic rules is called his linguistic competencecompetence. . n nPerformancePerformance refers to the actual refers to the actual use of language in concrete use of language in concrete situations.situations.105n nChomsky points out that this distinction is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure; but he does not accept the view of seeing langue as a mere systematic inventory of items. n nCompetence is closer to the famous German Competence is closer to the famous German linguist Humboldt's conception, that is, it linguist Humboldt's conception, that is, it should refer to the should refer to the underlying competenceunderlying competence as a as a system of system of generative processesgenerative processes. .。