语言学笔记

1. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people atcutally use, it is said to be Descriptive（描述性）-synchronic study（共 时研究）If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, it is said to be Perscriptive（规定性）- diachronic study （动态研究）3. Modern linguistic regards the spoken language as the nature or the primary medium of human language.4. Langue（语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; parole（话语） refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5. Competence: the ideal（normal） user's knowledge of the rules of his language; Performance: the actual realization of the knowledge in linguistic communications.6. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols（语言符号系统）used for human communication.7. Displacement（移位性）:It means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.（things which are present of not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places.）8. Voicing（浊音）:Vibration of the vocal cords（ 声带）results in a quality of speech sound called "voicing". It's the feature of all vowels and some consonants.Voiceless（清音）：When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless.9. Speech organs: the tongue, the uvula（小舌）,the soft palate/velum, the hard palate, the teeth ridge/alveolus（齿龈），the teeth and the lips. The tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation （发音）than any otherLarynxVocal cordsFig. L Organs of speech.Hard palateSoft palateUvulaPharynxOesophagusB Vlri 吧 cal arEpielOttlS drink, it will F 口Iiu I i ilo«ii laprrvj'nl the r*wxl or drink fraawtianjc d ito询上in神pip此AlveohrridgeTongueBack RootracheaTeethBladeGlot l.i n i ya Ltic openiii| ftt Ihirs imsi tion btlwccn Line Im v<H-al eordB when they are open.10. English consonants classification: in therms of manner of articulation（发音方式）;in terms of place of articulation（发音部位）; voicing （浊音）and voiceless（浊音）11. Vowels sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.（舌头位置，开口度，唇形，音长度）12. Phone（音素）: a phonetic unit or segment. A phone doesn't necessarily distinguish meaning; Phoneme（音位）: a phonological unit that is of distinctive value.13. Minimal pairs（最小对）: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.14. Suprasegmental features（音位特征）: stress, tone, intonation（重音, 声调，语调）15. A phonological feature of the English compounds in that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.（重音在另一个音节）16. Open class words: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.17. Morphology（形态学） refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.18. Bound morphemes are never words but always parts of words, like -ish, -able. Free morphemes can constitute words by themselves like: girl, rely. We seldom use bound morphemes alone, we combine all morphemes into longer units and sentences.19. Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar funtions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Major lexical categories are noun, verb, adjective and preposition.20. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.21. A certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, complements occupy in phrase structure.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule（短语结构规则）22. Not all verbs can take a CP complement. Words that can take CP are not verbs alone; As, Ns and Ps call all take CP.23. Transformation: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.24. Wh question: question beginning with a wh-word.25. Contextualism（语境/情境因素） a word in a new context is a new word.26. Behaviorism（行为主义）27. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the feature of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.28. Synonymy（同义） refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.29. Polysemy（词多义） refers to the same one word may have more than one meaning. This word is called a p