chapter-6-Pragmatics.ppt

Chapter 6 Pragmaticsn1. Introductionn2. Micropragmaticsn3. MacropragmaticsChapter 6 PragmaticsnA: You’re a fool.nB: What do you mean?nWhat he means: you’re a fool.nHis intention: to insult you, or to irritate you…nWhat you mean: to deny his comment on younWe are using language with a meaning other than the conceptual.1. IntroductionnPragmatics: the study of language in usenTwo major parts of meaning: na. conceptual meaning + grammarnb. contextual meaningnPragmatics = meaning – semantics.nPragmatics studies the speaker’s intended meaning.1. Introduction2. Micropragmaticsnthe study of meaning of language in smaller contextsnI was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping. (bus driver)nReference参照参照, deixis指示指示, anaphora回指回指 and presupposition预设预设2.1 ReferencenA: Where is the fresh salad sitting?nB: He’s sitting by the door.nfresh salad: food (semantics)n he (pragmatics)nfresh salad -------------------- hen inference (infer from)nAny additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.nfresh salad ----------------------- hen n reference (refer to)nThe act by which speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something2.1 ReferencenWhere is he?nThe reference of “he” depends on context.nDeixis: pointing via language.nYou’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.2.2 DeixisnFive types of deixis:nPerson deixis: me, you, himnTime deixis: now, then, this yearnSpace deixis: here, therenDiscourse deixis: in the previous sentencen have you heard this joke?nSocial deixis (honorifics): Prof. Lee, 李姐李姐2.2 DeixisnA: Can I borrow your dictionary?nB: Yeah, it’s on the table.nThe process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversationndictionary: antecedent 先行语先行语nit: anaphor 回指回指2.3 AnaphoranThe connection between antecedent and anaphor may be indirect.nI walked into the room. The windows looked out to the bay.nInvolving inferencenIndirect anaphora/ bridging reference2.3 AnaphoranWhen did you stop beating your wife?nAssumption 1: you used to beat your wife.nAssumption 2: you no longer do sonPresupposition: assumptions by the speaker or writer.2.4 PresuppositionnUseful for interrogators or trial lawyersnPositive answer: admission of the presuppositionnNegative answer: denial of the presupposition/ the questionnQ: Can you lend me your bike?nA1: YesnA2: NonA3: I don’t have a bike.2.4 PresuppositionnTo check the presupposition:nNegate the sentence, consider whether the presupposition remains truenI used to regret marrying her.nI don’t regret marrying her.nI married her.nConstancy under negation test2.4 PresuppositionnSource of presuppositionnPresupposition triggern(1) definitive descriptions限定性描述限定性描述n(2) factive verbs事实性动词事实性动词n(3) change of state verbs改变状态的动词改变状态的动词n(4) iteratives表示重复的词表示重复的词n(5) temporal clauses时间从句时间从句n(6) cleft sentences分裂句分裂句n(7) comparisons and contrast2.4 Presupposition3. MacropragmaticsnPragmatic study on larger pieces of language.nHow do speakers hide the real meanings in language?nHow do hearers recognize the speakers real meanings through language?3.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论言语行为理论nProposed by J.L. AustinnHow to Do Things with Words. 1962nDeveloped by J.R. SearlenLanguage is used to do things or to perform acts.ne.g. You are fired.nSpeech act: actions performed via language (apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, request …)3.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论言语行为理论nThe uttering of the relevant words is the action itself; without the utterance the action is not done.nE.g. Class begins.nPerformative sentence: sentence uttered to do things.nConstatives describe what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking, they can be tested true or false.nE.g. I pour some liquid into the cube.3.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论言语行为理论3.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论言语行为理论nConstatives are also used to perform acts.nE.g. It’s such a fine day today.nAction: suggesting an outing.nAll sentences can be used to do things.nIn what sense to say something is to do something?nThere are three senses in which saying something means doing something.nLocutionary Act(言内行为言内行为): the act of saying; the literal meaning of the utterance. (conveying literal meaning by means of syntax., lexicon and phonology) (Morning)3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nIllocutionary Act(言外行为言外行为): the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literalnMorning!nOffering a greeting.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nPerlocutionary Act (言后行为言后行为): the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances..nMorning nChanges in the relationship of the speaker and the hearer.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nYou have left the door wide open.nLocutionary act: saying the sentencenIllocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.nPerlocutionary act: door being closed or not closed.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nA sentence might be used for different purpose (request, an explanation …)nIllocutionary force:nspeaker’s meaningncontextual meaningnextra meaningnpurpose, intention3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nHow do people know which speech act is intended?nFelicity conditions --- circumstances under which it would be appropriate to interpret something as a particular type of speech act. (适切条件适切条件)3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nA. There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants an circumstances must be appropriate.nB. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.nC. Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nSpeech act theory is a theory of illocutionary actsnTrying to explain how speakers can mean more than literal meanings.nShowing coherence in seemingly incoherent conversation.nHusband: That’s the phone.nWife: I’m in the bathroom.nHusband: Okay.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts言外行为言外行为nSearle suggests 5 basic categories of illocutionary acts:nRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. (阐述类阐述类)ne.g. The earth is flat.n It was a warm sunny day.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnRepresentatives(阐述类阐述类)nThe speaker makes words fit the world (of belief)nThe degree of commitment varies from statement to statement.ne.g. I guess John has stolen the book.n I solemnly swear that John has stolen the book.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnDirectives: trying to get the hearer to do something. (指令类指令类)ne.g. Gimme a cup of coffee.n Could you lend me a pen, please?nThey can be negative.ne.g. Don’t touch that.nThe speaker attempts to make the world fit the worlds (via hearer)3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnCommissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. (承诺承诺类类)ne.g. I’ll be back.n nThey can be performed by the speaker as a member of a group.ne.g. We will not do that.nThe speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker)3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnExpressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.(表达类表达类)ne.g. I’m really sorry!nThe speaker makes the words fit the world (of feeling).3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnDeclarations: bring about immediate changes by saying something.(宣告类宣告类)ne.g. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.nThe speaker changes the world via words.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsnWhenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, it’s a direct speech act.nDeclarative: You wear a seat belt. (statement)nInterrogative: Do you wear a seat belt? (question)nImperative: Wear a seat belt! (command)3.1.3 Indirect speech actsnIndirect speech act: no direct relationship between the structure and functionnDeclarative: It’s cold outside. nStatement: weathernCommand: close the door. nInterrogative: Could you pass me the salt, please?nIndirect request: give me the salt3.1.3 Indirect speech actsnIndirectness of request:nGroup 1: concerning the hearer’s ability to do somethingnCan you pass the book over?nGroup 2: concerning the speaker’s wish or want that the hearer will do somethingnI would like you to write this down.3.1.3 Indirect speech actsnGroup 3: concerning the hearer’s doing somethingnWould you kindly pick that up for me?nGroup 4: concerning the hearer’s desire or willingness to do somethingnDo you want to return these books for me?3.1.3 Indirect speech actsnGroup 5: concerning reasons for doing somethingnYou should write to them every now and then.nSometimes sentences are used that have more than one of these elements.nWould it be too much trouble if I suggested that you could possibly return these books for me? (1, 2, 3)3.1.3 Indirect speech actsn3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)n你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮。

你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮n你戴眼镜的时候不漂亮你戴眼镜的时候不漂亮nHow do we produce meaning A in utterance B and understand utterance B as meaning A?3.2 The Cooperative Principle合作原合作原则则nH.P. Grice: a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation (CP)nMake your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nFour maxims:nQuantityn1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).n2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.ne.g. : What is your email address?n My email address is neville213@3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nQuality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.n1. Do not say what you believe to be false.n2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.nWhat is the color of the board?nIt’s black.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nRelation – Be relevant.nCan you go there with me?nYes, I can.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nManner – Be perspicuous.n1. Avoid obscurity of expression.n2. Avoid ambiguity.n3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).n4. Be orderly.nWhere were you yesterday?nI was near the bank on Wall Street.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nWe should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.nDescriptive not prescriptive 3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (准则准则)nInterpretation of utterance:ni. taking the meaning of the sentences together with contextual informationnii. using inference rulesniii. Working out what the speaker meanings on the basis of the assumption that the utterance conforms to the maxims3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nConversational implicature --- a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.nImplicature arises with observance and non-observance of the maxims.nHusband: Where are the car keys?nWife: They’re on the table in the hall. n(not in the drawers in the bedroom)3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nViolation of Quantity:nA young man introduced himself to a girl at a party: “I’m Robert Sampson from London, I’m a lawyer, 28, unmarried.”nBoys are boys.n—— Where does X live?n—— Somewhere in the south of France.nJim’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nViolation of Quality:nStudent: Singapore’s in Europe, isn’t it, sir?nTeacher: And London’s in America I suppose.nHe is made of iron.nEvery nice girl loves a rich man.nLies don’t have implicatures proper.3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nViolation of Relation:nA: Mrs. X is an old bag.nB: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, isn’t it?nA: Where’s my box of chocolates?nB: The children were in your room this morning.nA: Where is Bill?nB: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nViolation of Manner:nHusband: let’s get the kids something.nWife: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.nMiss X sang “Home Sweet Home”.nMiss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home Sweet Home”.3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nWe are violating the maxims for reasons.nFor other maxims:n—— Where does X live?n—— Somewhere in the south of France.nMaxim of qualitynFor politeness:nA: Mrs. X is an old bag.nB: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, isn’t it?3.2.2. Conversational implicatures会会话含意话含意nA complement to CP nIndirectness: nCould you give me a lift?nGive me a lift.nPoliteness: a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purpose, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nLeech:nMinimize the expression of impolite beliefs and maximize the expression of polite beliefs.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nThe six maxims of the PP:nMaxim of tact 得体得体(in directives and commissives)ni. Minimize cost to other.nIi. Maximize benefit to othern nYour not smoking here will be appreciated.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nMaxim of Generosity慷慨慷慨 (in directives and commissives)ni. Minimize benefit to selfnii. Maximize cost to selfnA: Will you come to my party?nB: I’m sorry, I wish I could.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nMaxim of Approbation赞扬赞扬 (in expressives and assertives)ni. Minimize dispraise of othernii. Maximize praise of othernHer composition was not so good as it might have been.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nMaxim of Modesty谦逊谦逊 (in expressives and assertives) ni. Minimize praise of selfnii. Maximize dispraise of selfnHow stupid of me!3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nMaxim of Agreement 赞同赞同 (in assertives)ni. Minimize disagreement between self and othernIi. Maximize agreement between self and othernA：：We’ll all miss Bill and Ann，，won’t we？？B：：Well，，we’ll all miss Bill.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nMaxim of Sympathy 同情同情 (in assertives)ni. Minimize antipathy between self and othernIi. Maximize sympathy between self and othernI’m terribly sorry to hear about your cat.n(probably the cat has just died)3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nViolating CP for PPnWhite liesnPP is very powerful that we need to violate its maxims to restore CP.ne.g. Don’t be too modest. Tell us everything you’ve achieved.3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nIrony is a means to solve the conflict between CP and PP.n n Your girl friend is too n beautiful!!!3.3 The Politeness Principle礼貌原则礼貌原则nffnffnffnffnffnffnffnffnffnffnff。