社会心理学态度

Chapter 4 Attitudes: Evaluating the Social World 态度：评价社会,Attitudes: Evaluations of various aspects of the social world. How are attitudes formed? When do attitudes influence behavior? How are attitudes changedthe process of persuasion? Why are attitudes usually difficult to change resistance to persuasion? Why our behaviors can sometimes shape our attitudes rather than vise versacognitive dissonance?,Attitude Formation: How we come to hold the views we do 态度形成：我们如何持有自己的观点 Three ways of attitude formation: Social Learning: acquiring attitudes from others. Classical Conditioning: learning based on association. E.g., 1st stimuli 2nd stimuli (Fig. 4.3) Instrumental conditioning: learning to hold the“right” views. E.g., learning by reward vs punishment Observational learning: learning by examples. E.g., Children learn to do as their parents do, not as they say. Social Comparison: compare ourselves with others,Genetic factors: genetic factors may play some role in attitudes. E.g., Identical twins share similar attitudes. Highly heritable attitudes are more difficult to change.,Why do we form attitudes? 对刺激进行正面或反面的分类。 Schemas: 我们把支持自己态度的信息视为更准确、更令人信服，而认为与我们态度相反的信息不准确不可信。 Self presentation/self identification: Self esteem Self defense 自我防御：抵制针对自己的有害信息 Impression motive：希望留给别人好印象的动机越强，就提出越多新论据来支持自己的态度。Fig.4.6,When do attitudes influence behavior? Attitudes dont always predict behavior Factors moderating the link between attitudes and behavior Aspects of the situation 情景方面的原因 *Situational constraints prevent us from expressing our attitudes overtly. E.g., buying Playboy in a shop. *We tend to prefer situations that allow us to express our attitudes, and this may strengthen our views. E.g, A smoker prefers to spend time with other smokers rather than with nonsmokers.,Aspects of attitudes 态度本身的原因 Attitude origins: How attitudes are formed. E.g, Direct experiences are easier to recall Attitude strength (可接近性知识重要性既得利益): the stronger attitudes are, the more they influence behavior. Attitude specificity: the extent to which attitudes are focused on specific objects or situations rather than on general ones. The attitudes-behavior link is stronger when the two are measured at the same level of specificity.,行为意向,How do attitudes influence behavior? Attitudes affect behavior through several mechanisms: The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen Fshbein,1980),对某一具体 行为的态度,主观标准,感知到的 行为控制力,外显行为,How do attitudes influence behavior? Attitudes and immediate behavioral reactions: Attitudes influence behavior more directly and automatically. E.g, 公共车上有人与老者争座位 When giving careful thought to attitudes, our intentions strongly predict behavior. Without careful thought, attitudes influence our behavior by shaping our perceptions of the situation.,The Fine Art of Persuasion: Using Messages to Change Attitudes 说服的艺术：用信息改变态度 Persuasion: Efforts to change others attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. Early studies on persuasion primarily focused on characteristics of the communicator, the messages and the audience. Such work did not explain how persuasion occurs.,Recent research on the cognitive processes suggests that we process persuasive messages in two ways. Systematic processing: Careful consideration of message contents and ideas. Heuristic processing: The use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts (Fig. 4.13). Which of the two modes of thought we choose depends on our motivation, capacity to process information, and our knowledge about the issue. If we find a message unimportant or uninteresting, we process it heuristically. If we find a message important or interesting, we process it systematically,When Attitude Change Fails: Resistance to Persuasion 态度改变失败：抵抗说服 Reactance (对抗): Negative reactions to efforts by others to reduce or limit our personal freedom. In such situations, we may reject their persuasion by adopting opposite views (negative attitude change). Forewarning（预先警告）: Advance knowledge of persuasion intent increases resistance to the persuasion. Selective avoidance（选择性回避）: A tendency to direct our attention away from information that challenges our existing attitudes.,Aactive defense of our existing attitudes: if we receive opinions against our views with arguments that refute these opinions, our resistance to subsequent persuasion increases. Fig.4.14 Biased assimilation（偏性同化): Evaluating information inconsistent with our attitudes as less convincing or reliable than information consistent with our views (Fig. 4. 13). Attitude polarization (态度极化): : Evaluating mixed evidence or information in ways that strengthen our initial views and make them more extreme. These two tendencies make our attitudes persist and difficult to be changed.,Cognitive Dissonance (认知失调):Why Our Behavior Can Sometimes Influence Our Attitudes Cognitive dissonance: An unpleasant state that occurs when we notice inconsistencies between our attitudes or be